41. Books And Articles Referred To In The Note By Menso Folkerts HLL Busard, The Latin translation of the Arabic version of Euclid s Elements commonlyascribed to gerard of cremona (Leiden New Rhine Publishers, 1983). http://www.math.ubc.ca/people/faculty/cass/Euclid/folkerts/refs.html

Books and articles referred to in the note by Menso Folkerts A. Allard al-Khwarizmi R. O. Besthorn et al., Codex Leidensis 399,1. Euclidis Elementa ex interpretatione al-Hadschdschadschii cum commentariis al-Narizii (Copenhagen, 1893-1932). B. Bischoff , in: Mittelalterliche Studien , Bd.3 (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1981). Sonja Brentjes al-Haggag b. Yusuf b. Matar (zwischen 786 und 833), in: Archive for History of Exact Sciences XLVII (1994) 53-92. Sonja Brentjes , The Relevance of Non-Primary Sources for the Recovery of the Primary Transmission of Euclid's Elements into Arabic, in: Tradition, Transmission, Transformation. Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma. Edited by F. J. Ragep and S. R. Ragep with St. Livesey. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996, pp.201-225. Sonja Brentjes , Additions to Book I in the Arabic Traditions of Euclid's Elements , in XV, no. 1-2, New Series (1997/98) 55-117. H. L. L. Busard , Some Early Adaptations of Euclid's Elements and the Use of its Latin Translations, in: , ed. M. Folkerts and U. Lindgren (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1985), pp.129-164, esp. p.136.

42. MuslimHeritage.com - Topics southern France Armengaud son of Blaise, Jacob Anatoli, Moses ibn Tibbon, Jacobben Mahir, and from Italy Plato of Tivoli, gerard of cremona, Aristippus of http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?TaxonomyTypeID=22&TaxonomySubTy

43. MuslimHeritage.com - Topics AlRazi was translated into Latin by gerard of cremona and others. Most 1114AD,Birth of Italian scholar gerard of cremona in Italy. He http://www.muslimheritage.com/timeline/chronology.cfm

Chronology of major events in Muslim Heritage This is a short and incomplete list of major developments made by Muslims during the 9th to 16th Centuries. Shortcut to: th th th th ... th Centuries. th Century Muslim merchants reach China (Canton). Foundation of a paper factory in Baghdad; the first in history outside China. The Muslims use different materials from the Chinese, though. This is a development that would subsequently revolutionise learning. The paper industry spreads from Baghdad, to Syria and further West, until it reaches about a century later Europe (Spain) via Morocco. Mash'allah writes on the Astrolabe. He was one of the earliest astronomers and astrologers in Islam. Only one of his writings is extant in Arabic, but there are many medieval Latin and Hebrew translations of it. His most popular book in the Middle Ages was the `De scientia motus orbis,' translated by G. Cremonna in the twelfth century. Al-Tabari writes on Astronomy. Harun al-Rashid gives Charlemagne a clock that struck the hours. Foundation of the city of Fez by the Idrisids in Morocco.

44. Loq-Man Translations A number of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it fromall over Europe, were gerard of cremona (1117 1187) and John of Seville. http://www.loqmantranslations.com/ArabicFacts/Europeans.html

EUROPEAN TRANSLATORS Home Sitemap Company About us Services Translation Software Localization ... Consulting Translators Forum Translator's Form Translator's Help Contact Us As early as eleventh century Toledo became a center for the transmission of Arabic (Islamic) culture and science to Europe. A number of translators flourished there. Among the scholars, who flocked to it from all over Europe, were Gerard of Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other famous translators were Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael Scot, Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli. The early translations were primarily into Latin and some into Hebrew. Subsequent translations were done from Latin or Hebrew into vernacular languages of Europe.Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. They translated word for word and, where they failed to understand, Latinized the Arabic words. Under the supervision of Archdeacon Domenico Gundisalvi, and with the cooperation of the Hebrew Johannes ben David, the school of the Archbishop of Toledo rendered into Latin a large number of Arabic works on science and philosophy. Gerard, who reminded Hunayn ibn Ishaq of Toledo, translated into Latin more than seventy Arabic books on different subjects. He was born in 1114 in Cremona, Italy. He went to Toledo, Spain to learn Arabic so he could translate available Arabic works into Latin. Gerard remained there for the rest of his life and died in 1187 in Toledo, Spain (Andalusia). Gerard's name is sometimes written as Gherard. Among his translations were the

45. Khorezmi in the twelfth century by the West, when Adelard de Bath (who has been called thefirst english scientist, 1080 1160), gerard of cremona (Italy, 1117 - 1187 http://www.disc-conference.org/disc2000/mirror/khorezmi/

Information about the word Algorithm 14th International Symposium on DIStributed Computing (DISC 2000) October 4-6, 2000 Toledo, Spain http://www.disc2000.org News Registration Payment ... Jeff Miller The origin of the word 'Algorithm' The word "algorithm" itself is quite interesting; at first glance it may look as though someone intended to write "logarithm" but jumbled up the first four letters. The word did not appear in Webster's New World Dictionary as late as 1957; we find only the older form "algorism" with its ancient meaning, i.e., the process of doing arithmetic using Arabic numerals. In the middle ages, abacists computed on the abacus and algorists computed by algorism. Following the middle ages, the origin of this word was in doubt, and early linguists attempted to guess at its derivation by making combinations like algiros [painful] + arithmos Kitab al jabr w'al'muqabala ("Rules of restoration and reduction"); another word, "algebra," stems from the title of his book, although the book wasn't really very algebraic. Gradually the form and meaning of "algorism" became corrupted; as explained by the Oxford English Dictionary, the word was "erroneously refashioned" by "learned confusion" with the word

46. Medieval Geomancy: Annotated Bibliography libros tres, and Quaestiones geomantiae Alfakini, here attributed to Platon de Tivolibut, according to Charmasson, based on the treatise of gerard of cremona. http://www.princeton.edu/~ezb/geomancy/geobiblio.html

Annotated Bibliography To the best of my knowledge, none of the medieval treatises on geomancy are available in modern English, nor do I know of any scholarly editions of the texts, with the two exceptions noted below. Primary Sources Burnett, C.S.F. "What is the Experimentarius of Bernardus Silvestris? A preliminary survey of the material." xliv (1977): 79-125. [Reprinted in Magic and divination in the Middle Ages . Variorum Collected Studies Series CS557, 1996.] Includes an edition of the "Experimentarius" of Bernardus Silvestris. The "Experimentarius" describes a medieval predictive technique based on geomancy but more arbitrary. Cattan, Christofe de. Paris: Gilles Gilles, 1558. A book-length treatise on geomancy, with examples of geomantic tableaux cast by Cattan for his acquaintances at the French court. The text describes the method of casting the points and forming the figures; discusses the meanings of the figures and their correspondences with elements, animals, planets, etc.; summarizes the questions appropriate to each house (with examples); and thoroughly covers the various ways to interpret the tableau. Fasciculus geomanticus . Verona: 1704. This compilation of Latin treatises on geomancy includes, among others, Robert Fludd's

47. Re: More Questions On Arabic Numerals By Tom Archibald archibald@acadiau.ca Organization Acadia University Date Fri, 2 Feb 1996 0225570500 I don t have Gerard s work at hand, but gerard of cremona spent a http://mathforum.org/epigone/math-history-list/zalspangyun/30A53C7333@ace.acadia

Re: more questions on arabic numerals by Tom Archibald reply to this message post a message on a new topic Back to messages on this topic Back to math-history-list Subject: Re: more questions on arabic numerals Author: tom.archibald@acadiau.ca Organization: Acadia University Date: http://ace.acadiau.ca/math/archiba.html The Math Forum

48. Arab Numbers By Paul Polivko I see that gerard of cremona made the first translation of the Almagestfrom Arabic into Latin about the same year that Fibonacci was born. http://mathforum.org/epigone/cl/aa12/02hc6q1ipycd@forum.swarthmore.edu

arab numbers by paul polivko reply to this message post a message on a new topic Back to messages on this topic Back to Co-learn Subject: arab numbers Author: paul.polivko@abc.com Date: The Math Forum

49. Islamset - Islamic Medicine In The Kingdom Of Aragon In The Early Fourteenth Cen the king placed so much store can only have been Avicenna s Canon, the great medicalencyclopedia of Ibn Sina translated into Latin by gerard of cremona in the http://www.islamset.com/hip/i_medcin/mic_mcvaugh.html

Home Health-an Islamic Perspective Islamic Medicine Health An Islamic Perspective ISLAMIC MEDICINE IN THE KINGDOM OF ARAGON IN THE EARLY FOURTEENTH CENTURY Prof. Michael McVaugh U.S.A. In September 1301 the king of Aragon, James II, wrote urgently to his treasurer commanding him to get the royal "Librum medicine vocatum Avicenne" out of pawn. As he explained in a second letter in March 1302, he had allowed his favorite surgeon, Berengar de Riaria, to pawn the volume with a Barcelona merchant for 500 sueldos, but now he found a "valda necessarium" and had to have it back. Five hundred sueldos was an enormous amount the price of fifty meters of Persian cloth, of a good mule or of a ppor horse and not even the royal treasury always found such sums easy to produce. The king had to repeat his order for the book's redemption for months to come. This volume on which the king placed so much store can only have been Avicenna's Canon

50. Encyclopedia: Gerard Of Cremona Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online Islamic philosophy Aristotelianism, medieval 4 The thirteenth century. by gerard of cremona.gerard of cremona. to Latin. Translators 2 The science of the Arabs. http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Gerard-of-Cremona

Supporter Benefits Signup Login Sources ... Pies Factoid #64 NationMaster.com is now 40 times the size of the CIA World Factbook! Interesting Facts Make your own graph: Hold down Control and click on several. Compare All Top 5 Top 10 Top 20 Top 100 Bottom 100 Bottom 20 Bottom 10 Bottom 5 All (desc) in category: Select Category Agriculture Crime Currency Democracy Economy Education Energy Environment Food Geography Government Health Identification Immigration Internet Labor Language Manufacturing Media Military Mortality People Religion Sports Taxation Transportation Welfare with statistic: view: Correlations Printable graph / table Pie chart Scatterplot with ... * Asterisk means graphable. Added May 21 Mortality stats Multi-users ½ price Catholic stats Top Graphs Richest Most Murderous Most Populous Most Militaristic ... More Stats Categories Agriculture Background Crime Currency ... Welfare Updated: Nov 21, 2003 Encyclopedia : Gerard of Cremona Gerard of Cremona Gherardo ) (Cremona, Lombardy, ca 1114 Toledo, 1187), the translator of Ptolemy s Astronomy (and mistakenly credited as translator of Avicenna 's Canon of Medicine see below) from Arabic texts found in Toledo, was one of a small group of scholars who invigorated medieval Europe in the 12th Century by transmitting Greek and Arabic traditions in astronomy, medicine and other sciences, in the form of translations into Latin, which made them available to every literate person in the West.

51. Lecture 4 Benedict in 529); Palermo; Syracuse. When gerard of cremona translated Ptolemy swork into Latin from Arabic (1175) alMagisti became known as Almagest. http://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ExploringtheCosmos/lecture4.html

HISTORY 135C Exploring the Cosmos An Introduction to the History of Astronomy SPRING QUARTER, 2003 Department of History University of California, Irvine Instructor: Dr. Barbara J. Becker Lecture 4. Transmission of Ancient Knowledge from the Fall of Rome (5th c CE) to Pre-Renaissance (12th c) Monastery schools (~5th c) Goals standardizing and preserving Christian dogma scriptoria preserving and practicing Christian lifestyle herbaria (cultivating herb and vegetable gardens) vivaria (husbanding useful animals) valetudinaria (maintaining good health) Principal Sources of Ancient Science (300 - 800 CE) Author Work Latin translation by/from When Plato Timaeus Chalcidius/Greek 4th c Aristotle some logical works Boethius/Greek 6th c Lucretius On Nature known in 8th c Boethius (480-524) Roman of noble birth preserved knowledge on logic and mathematics translated Aristotle's Logic; Pythagoras; Euclid Cassiodorus (488-575) Roman statesman and scholar wrote commentaries on liberal arts supported making copies of secular works Isidore of Seville (560-636) preserved medical knowledge emphasized mystical view of natural phenomena Bede of Jarrow (673-735) incorporated ancient knowledge into own writing influenced by Pliny’s Natural History made methodical study of tides and published tables Islamic Science—9th-12th c Spread of Islam from death of Mohammed (632) to 750 Al-Khwarizmi c. 800-847

52. Greek Mathematics And Its Modern Heirs (cont.) Vat. lat. 2056 fols. 45 verso46 recto, fols. 87 verso-88 recto math10a NS.09. Ptolemy,Almagest. In Latin, Translated by gerard of cremona, Thirteenth century http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathematics/Greek_math2.ht

Greek Mathematics and its Modern Heirs (Cont.) Classical Roots of the Scientific Revolution Astronomical-Mathematical Collection In Greek, Tenth century This is the oldest and best manuscript of a collection of early Greek astronomical works, mostly elementary, by Autolycus, Euclid, Aristarchus, Hypsicles, and Theodosius, as well as mathematical works. The most interesting, really curious, of these is Aristarchus's "On the Distances and Sizes of the Sun and Moon," in which he shows that the sun is between 18 and 20 times the distance of the moon. Shown here is Proposition 13, with many scholia, concerned with the ratio to the diameters of the moon and sun of the line subtending the arc dividing the light and dark portions of the moon in a lunar eclipse. Vat. gr. 204 fol. 116 recto math06 NS.02 Apollonius, Conics In Greek, 1536 Apollonius's "Conics," written about 200 B.C., on conic sections, the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola, is the most complex and difficult single work of all Greek mathematics and was all but unknown in the west until the fifteenth century. This magnificent copy, probably the most elegant of all Greek mathematical manuscripts, was made in 1536 for Pope Paul III. The pages on display show the particularly elaborate figures illustrating Propositions 2-4 of Book III on the equality of areas of triangles and quadrilaterals formed by tangents and diameters of conics, and by tangents and lines parallel to the tangents.

53. Alchemy - 2 had much less impact than the work of arRazi and other Arabs, which emerged amongthe voluminous translations made in Spain about 1150 by gerard of cremona. http://www.crystalinks.com/alchemy1.html

ALCHEMY - PART 2 Latin Alchemy In the 12th century the Christian West began to shed its habit of indifference or hostility to the secular literature of ancient and alien civilizations. Christian scholars were particularly attracted to Muslim Spain and Sicily and there made translations from both Arabic and Greek works, many of which were in some degree familiar, but some of which, including the literature of alchemy, were new. The Greek alchemy of the Venice-Paris manuscript had much less impact than the work of ar-Razi and other Arabs, which emerged among the voluminous translations made in Spain about 1150 by Gerard of Cremona. By 1250 alchemy was familiar enough to enable such encyclopaedists as Vincent of Beauvais to discuss it fairly intelligibly, and before 1300 the subject was under discussion by the English philosopher and scientist Roger Bacon and the German philosopher, scientist, and theologian Albertus Magnus. To learn about alchemy was to learn about chemistry, for Europe had no independent word to describe the science of matter. It had been touched upon in works concerned with other forms of changee.g., the motion of projectiles, the aging of man, and similar Aristotelian concepts. On the practical side there were also artists' recipe books; but for the first time in the works of Bacon and Albertus Magnus change was discussed in a truly chemical sense, with Bacon treating the newly translated alchemy as a general science of matter for which he had great hopes. But the more familiar alchemy became, the more clearly it was understood that gold making was the almost exclusive objective of alchemy, and Europeans proved no more resistant to the lure of this objective than their Arabic predecessors. By 1350, alchemical tracts were pouring out of the scriptoria (monastic copying rooms), and the Europeans had even taken over the tradition of anonymity and false attribution.

54. Innovation Watch - The Growth Of Knowledge (Citations) into Arabic and often annotated with Arabic commentaries scholars like theEnglishman Adelard of Bath or the Italian gerard of cremona, men eager to make http://www.innovationwatch.com/mind_knowledge_cit.htm

Innovation Watch Enterprise Ecology IW Homepage Newsletter ... Mailbox Community Site Search Contact Us Mind and Consciousness - The Growth of Knowledge (Citations) HOME DEEP CHANGE Mysterious Journey ... A Critical Balance THE BOOK "The Arab Age of Translation began during the reign of Harun-al-Rashid (A.D. 786-809), when scholar-physicians at a Nestorian Christian academy in Jundi-Shapur, in southwest Persia, were brought to Baghdad to translate Greek manuscripts gathered by the caliph's agents, acting, in the words of a modern writer, as 'buyers of culture.' A young scholar from Jundi-Shapur, Hunayn ibn-Ishaq, became court physician to Harun's son, Caliph al-Mamun, and in 830 was named head of the 'House of Wisdom,' a library founded by the caliph to store and translate Greek manuscripts. Hanayn and his colleagues translated Plato's Republic, many of Aristotle's works, and the medical writings of Hippocrates, Dioscorides, and Galen (some of whose works were later lost in the original Greek and preserved to the world solely in Hunayn's Arabic)." Gies and Gies

55. W. B. Yeats And "A Vision": Giraldus Gerard of Sabloneta was also the author of Geomantia Astronomica, but it is usuallyreferred to as the work of gerard of cremona, without differentiating which http://www.yeatsvision.com/Gyraldus.html

Giraldus ‘The Discoveries of Michael Robartes’, typescript dialogue of Robartes and Aherne, YVP c.f. AV A AV B Geraldus, Giraldus, Gyraldus? Yeats’s spelling was rather weak and somewhat erratic; added to this, many mediaeval and Renaissance names appear in several versions, both vernacular and Latin, and vary hugely. Shakespeare famously spelt his own surname in a number of different ways, to which his contemporaries added further variants. The name of Yeats’s character was given as ‘Geraldus’ on his first appearance in print in the Preface to Michael Robartes and the Dancer in 1921 ( VP 853), but as ‘Giraldus’ in AV A and then AV B , and this is followed by most critics. The other variant Yeats uses here, which appears in Laurie’s prospectus for subscribers and generally in the Script , ‘Gyraldus’, may be linked to a wordplay on ‘gyre’, though it appeared several months before the first use of the term ‘gyre’ in the Automatic Script. Is there an historical Giraldus? As discussed in the background to the fictions , Yeats first appears to have mentioned the mysterious writer, Giraldus, in a letter Augusta Gregory (4 January 1918; L 644), but he had obviously been considering him even earlier, since Dulac had already been asked for a portrait (see below). The name appears in the Automatic Script on 12 January 1918 in one of the answers, ‘Gyraldus primary // Arab anti’, already linked to a contrasting Arab perspective. The draft quoted above was used with minor changes in

56. Part 5: Alchemy, Chemistry And Magic gerard of cremona (c1150), represented by 5 manuscripts, was also importantin introducing the works of Avicenna and Rasis to Spain. http://www.adam-matthew-publications.co.uk/collect/p558.htm

THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Series One: The Papers of Sir Hans Sloane, 1660-1753, from the British Library, London Part 5: Alchemy, Chemistry and Magic 18 reels of 35mm silver halide positive microfilm Alchemy was still a vibrant discipline during Sir Hans Sloane’s lifetime. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), the greatest scientist of his generation, undertook alchemical experiments, and the subject blended both proto-chemistry and pharmaceutical research. Alchemy could claim a 3,700 year heritage, having been established by the great Arabic and Greek philosophers of antiquity, and was refined and developed by successive generations of scholars including Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon. Amongst its greatest achievements it could claim the discovery of the mineral acids (hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acid) and the invention of the processes of sublimation and condensation. It also pioneered much of today’s laboratory equipment. The goal of alchemy was nothing less than the attainment of wealth, longevity and immortality. By reducing and recombining substances it aimed to transform base metals into gold and to produce a powder or pill to cure every sickness.

57. List Of Entries Geometry, Philosophical Issues in Thomas Ryckman George of Trebizond JohnMonfasani. gerard of cremona Mark Jordan. Gerard of Odo Bonnie Kent. http://www.routledge-ny.com/rep/entrie2.html

List of Entries A B C D ... Z G Gadadhara Jonardon Ganeri Gadamer, Hans-Georg Kathleen Wright Gaius Grant McLeod Galen R.J. Hankinson Galileo Galilei Mario Biagioli Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand Frank J. Hoffman Gangesa Stephen H. Phillips Garrigou-Lagrange, Reginald Ralph McInerny Gassendi, Pierre Margaret Osler Gaudiya Vaishnavism Jan Brzezinski Gautama Aksapada Eli Franco Karin Preisendanz Gender and Ethics Zoltan Szabo Gender and Science Sandra Harding Genealogy R. Kevin Hill General Relativity, Philosophical Responses to Thomas Ryckman General Will Peter Nicholson Genetics Lindley Darden Genetics and Ethics Ruth Chadwick Gentile, Giovanni Richard Bellamy Gentzen, Gerhard Karl Erich Volker Peckhaus Geology, Philosophy of Rachel Laudan Geometry, Philosophical Issues in Thomas Ryckman George of Trebizond John Monfasani Gerard of Cremona Mark Jordan Gerard of Odo Bonnie Kent Gerard, Alexander Dabney Townsend Gerbert of Aurillac Fiona Somerset Gerdil, Cardinal Sigismond Patrick Riley German Idealism Paul Franks Gerson, Jean

58. Influence Of Muslim Philosophy On The West Averroes). These translations were made under the supervision of Gundiaslivus(d 1151) followed by gerard of cremona (d 1187). The http://www.renaissance.com.pk/JunRefl2y3.html

Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West Osman Amin Cultural relations between the Muslims and Christian Europe were established in two ways: first via Spain and second by way of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples. The translation of Arabic works into Latin was closely associated with the name of the theologian Raymond who was the Archbishop of Toledo from 1130 to 1150 AD. In Toledo, the Muslims lived side by side with the Christians. They lived in the capital and the seat of the Archbishop spurred their neighbours into taking an interest in the intellectual life of the Muslims. In Toledo, Raymond established a translation bureau the purpose of which was to render Arabic masterpieces into Latin. Among works translated were Arabic versions of Aristotle’s works as well as original works by Farabi Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes). These translations were made under the supervision of Gundiaslivus (d: 1151) followed by Gerard of Cremona (d: 1187). The result of translating Arabic works into Latin was a new intellectual effort on the part of both supporters and opponents. Thus the point of view of Western thinkers was broadened and Islamic thought acquired a new importance with them. It is an accepted fact now among Western thinkers that Farabi exercised a great influence on the philosophy of the Middle Ages; his book

59. History Of Astronomy: Persons (G) gerard of cremona Germ. Gerhard von Cremona (c.11141187) Shortbiography and reference (MacTutor Hist. Math.); Short biography http://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/~pbrosche/persons/pers_g.html

History of Astronomy Persons History of Astronomy: Persons (G) Deutsche Fassung Gabir ben Aflah: see Jabir ibn Aflah Gabor, Dennis (1900-1979) The Nobel Prize in Physics 1971 Including an autobiography. Very short biographical data and links Gagarin, Yuri Alekseyevich (1934-1968) Very short biography Gale, Walter Frederick (1865-1945) Short biographical data and archival sources Galilei, Galileo Galle, Johann Gottfried (1812-1910) Very short biography Very short biography Very short biography Galois, Evariste (1811-1832) Short biography and references (MacTutor Hist. Math.) Crater Galois (lunar feature) Links to WWW sources Gamow, George (1904-1968) Short biography and references Very short biography (Eric Weisstein's Treasure Trove) Very short biography Ganesa (1507-after 1564) Very short biography Gaposchkin, Cecilia Payne: see Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia (1900-1979) Gascoigne, Sidney Charles (b. 1915) Short biographical data Short biography Gascoigne, William (1621-1644) Biographical data and references Gassendi [Gassend; Gassendy], Pierre (1592-1655)

60. Euclid of the TwentyTwo Early Extant Arabic Manuscripts of the Elements (Ancient Mediterraneanand Medieval Texts and Contexts, 2), gerard of cremona s Translation of http://www.teen-bookstore.com/page/4/terms/Euclid.html

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