41. ALL ABOUT SPAIN - Travel And Tourism COUNTRY AND CULTURE Includes general information on spain, its climate, history, architecture, popular customs such as Flamenco and bullfighting, the most http://www.red2000.com/spain/

REGIONS OF SPAIN The "Autonomous Communities" of Spain, such as Andalusia Catalonia Balearic Islands Mallorca ... Ibiza , etc.), Canary Islands Gran Canaria Tenerife Fuerteventura ... La Palma , etc.), among others , general characteristics, the provinces, locations of touristical interest, and major attractions. CITY GUIDE A comprehensive guide to the most attractive cities in Spain, like Madrid Barcelona Seville Granada ... Valencia , and many more , including sightseeing, excursions, practical infos and more. SPAIN A-Z An alphabetical listing allowing quick access to all the locations included in our guide. ACCOMMODATION AND TRAVEL SERVICES IN SPAIN Search our database for hotels , car rentals, language courses, restaurants, country houses, youth hostels, entertainment and all sorts of touristic services in Spain, as well as for travel agents and tour operators specializing in travels to Spain. PHOTO - TOUR A great way to get a first impression! Choose from a collection of thumbnail-photos on which items to get informed or which images to see in full-scale. COUNTRY AND CULTURE Includes general information on Spain, its climate, history, architecture, popular customs such as

42. Www.iue.it/LIB/SISSCO/VL/hist-spain/Index.html Columbus World Travel Guide Europe - spain - history and World Travel Guide - spain - history and Government - includes information on the constitution and politics. http://www.iue.it/LIB/SISSCO/VL/hist-spain/Index.html

43. ART HISTORY RESOURCES ON THE WEB: Contents 15thcentury Art Northern Europe and spain spain. Sweden. Switzerland. Taiwan. Turkey. United States. Wales. Virtual Museums. Museum Links. Various Miscellaneous. Art history http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHLinks.html

Prehistoric Art Prehistoric Art: General Paleolithic Art Mesolithic Art ... AWARDS and STATS Contents Prehistoric Ancient Near East Ancient Egypt Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Mesopotamian Sumerian Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Babylonian Hittite Elamite Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemid Persian Sassanian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Art in Early Europe Aegean Cycladic Minoan Mycenaean Greek Hellenistic Etruscan Roman Scythian Celtic Iron-Age Europe Viking Middle Ages 15th Century 16th Century Early Christian Byzantine Islamic Early Medieval Carolingian Ottonian Romanesque Gothic Late Gothic in Italy Early Renaissance Northern Renaissance High Renaissance Mannerism Northern Renaissance 17th Century 18th Century 19th Century Baroque Late Baroque Rococo Neo-Classicism Romanticism Romanticism Neo-Classicism Realism Pre-Raphaelites Arts and Crafts Realism Impressionism Post-Impressionism Neo-Impressionism Pointillism Symbolism Art Nouveau 20th Century 21st Century Fauvism Expressionism Cubism Futurism Dada Surrealism Abstract Expressionism Pop Art Op Art Minimalism Performance Art Environmental Art Neo-Expressionism Post-modernism Contemporary Art Museums Centers Institutes Journals Reviews Prints Posters Photographs Asia Africa Asia Afghanistan Burma Cambodia China India Indus Valley Indonesia Japan Korea Laos Malaysia Nepal Pakistan Singapore Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam Akan Adinkra Adire Asanti Baule Bedu Benin Gelede Ife Igbo Ndebele Nok Yoruba Zulu North America

44. Untitled Document Timeline of spain s history. 25,000 to 10,000 BC The cave paintings of Pinal, Pena de Candamo, El Pendal, Pasiega, Ribadesella and http://staff.esuhsd.org/~balochie/studentprojects/spain/Timeline.html

Timeline of Spain's History 25,000 to 10,000 B.C.: The cave paintings of Pinal, Pena de Candamo, El Pendal, Pasiega, Ribadesella and Altamira express the existence of a fine culture in the Magdalenian period. 1,100 B.C.: The Phoenicians found Gadir or Gades (Cadiz), Baria Adra, Almunecar and Malaga. 1,000 B.C.: Civilization of the Tartessians. The Celts begin to arrive from across the Pyrenees. 7th century B.C.: The Greeks found Hemeroscopiaon and Manake. 6th century B.C.: Emporio (Ampurias) and Rhodaes (Rosas) founded. 237 B.C.: Hamilcar takes the S. and SE. and founds Akra Leuke (Alicante). Hasdrubal founds Cartago Nova (Cartagena) 218 to 201 B.C.: Hannibal takes Saguntum (Punic War). The Carthaginians invade Italy. Scipio lands in Spain and defeats Hasdrubal in Tarraco (Tarragona), Illipa (Alcala del Rio) and Gadir. Rome annexes the country and divides it into two provinces: Hispanis Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. 209 B.C.: Decline of Hannibal's army in Italy and beginning of the great Roman conquest of Spain. Rome annexes the country and divides it into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. 143 to 139 B.C.: Viriatus and the Lusitanians fight the Roman legions.

45. Spain's History spain s history. Introduction. Early spain was made up of a diverse race of people. The first to appear were the Iberians, a Libyan http://staff.esuhsd.org/~balochie/studentprojects/spain/history.html

Spain's History Introduction Over the six centuries of Rome's ruling they left a big impact on Spain. They left the: Roman law, the Christian religion, and the Latin language. After the Romans had left Spain many other tribes of people tried to conquer Spain but most of them lost against the Visigoths. The Visigoths had complete control over Spain at the time. Then during the 8th century Arabs started entering from the South. They had started to conquer most of the country except for one portion in the North (but eventually was conquered eight centuries later). The period of Muslim sway is divided into three periods: The Emirate (711 to 756 A.D.), the Caliphate (756 to 1031 A.D.) and the Reinos de Taifas (1031 to 1492 A.D.) In 1469, the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, prepared the way for the union of the two kingdoms and marked the opening of a period of growing success for Spain, since during their reign, Granada, the last stronghold of the Arabs in Spain, was conquered and, at the same time, in the same historic year of 1492, the caravels sent by the Crown of Castile under the command of Christopher Columbus discovered America. The Canary Islands became part of Spanish territory (1495), the hegemony of Spain in the Mediterranean, to the detriment of France, was affirmed with the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples, and Navarre was incorporated into the Kingdom. The next two centuries, the 16th and the 17th, witnessed the construction and apogee of the Spanish Empire as a result of which the country, under the aegis of the Austrians, became the world's foremost power, and European politics hinged upon it.

46. Blood Of Spain: An Oral History Of The Spanish Civil War (Ronald Fraser) Formal histories lack immediacy, while personal accounts offer only a single perspective; Blood of spain is an oral history of the war built around the http://dannyreviews.com/h/Blood_Spain.html

Danny Yee's Book Reviews Subjects Titles Authors ... Latest Blood of Spain: An Oral History of the Spanish Civil War Ronald Fraser Pimlico 1994 Amazon A book review by Danny Yee The Spanish civil war is, for me, the great tragedy of twentieth century history. In quantitative horror it pales beside the Holocaust and many other events, but it has all the classical elements of tragedy: a combination of inevitableness and contingency, the gradual closing of possibilities, and human and organisational flaws aplenty. And it is not one tragedy but many: the failure of the social revolution and its destruction by the communists; the dilemmas of the Basque and Catalan bourgeoisie, caught between the military and the social revolution; the folly of Non-Intervention; innumerable personal tragedies; and the final obliteration of hopes and aspirations, of plans and alternatives, beneath the grim tide of Francoism. Blood of Spain succeeds better than anything else I have read on the civil war in capturing these tragedies. Formal histories lack immediacy, while personal accounts offer only a single perspective; Blood of Spain is an oral history of the war built around the memories and stories of hundreds of people from all political allegiances and all walks of life combatants and non-combatants, men and women, rich and poor. It joins short segments of direct quotation with narrative links to produce personal accounts of individual episodes; these are supplemented with quotations from newspapers, laws, and political texts. The result captures something of how the war affected those caught up in it and what they felt and thought some individuals are followed throughout the war but individual accounts are also grouped so as to place key events and themes within a broader perspective.

47. Medieval Sourcebook: Ibn Abd-el-Hakem: The Islamic Conquest Of Spain note The selection above is from the history of the Conquest of spain by the Egyptian Ibn Abdel-Hakem (d. 870 or 871 ), who also wrote a history of Egypt. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/conqspain.html

Back to Medieval Source Book ORB Main Page Links to Other Medieval Sites Medieval Sourcebook: Ibn Abd-el-Hakem: The Islamic Conquest of Spain The Muslim expansion continued throughout the sixth and into the seventh century. In 711 the Berber Tarik invaded and rapidly conquered Visigothic Spain. Famously by 733 the Muslims reached Poitiers in France. There a battle, more significant to westerners than Muslims, halted the Muslim advance. In truth by that stage Islam was at its limits of military expansion. Tarik gave his name to "Jabal (mount of) Tarik" or, as we say, Gibraltar. In 712 Tarik's lord, Musa ibn-Mosseyr, joined the attack. Within seven years the conquest of the peninsula was complete. It became one of the centers of Moslem civilization, and the Umayyad caliphate of Cordova reached a peak of glory in the tenth century. Spain, called "al-Andulus" by Muslims remained was at least partially under Muslim control until 1492 when Granada was conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella. As Abd-Errahman has related to us on the authority of his father Abd-Allah lbn Abd-El-Hakem, and of Hisham Ibn Ishaak: There was a house in Andalus, the door of which was secured with padlocks, and on which every new king of the country placed a padlock of his own, until the accession to power of the king against whom the Moslems marched. They therefore begged him to place a padlock on it, as the kings before him were wont to do. But he refused saying, I will place nothing on it, until I shall have known what is inside; he then ordered it to be opened; but behold inside were portraits of the Arabs, and a letter in which it was written: "When this door shall be opened, these people will invade this country."

48. History Of Spain spain info. Culture in spain, a map of spain, history of spain and more!! All the information on spain you could want. history of spain. Overview. http://www.spain-info.com/history_index.htm

Culture in Spain, a map of Spain, history of Spain and more!! All the information on Spain you could want. Information on Spain Home Culture in Spain Map of Spain History of Spain ... Contact Us History of Spain Overview A brief historical overview of the history of Spain. Timeline A timeline of important events in the history of Spain. Important Events:The 1st Civilisations The 1st civilisations to arrive in Spain Important Events:The Romans How the Romans planted the seeds for Spains future development Important Events:The Discovery of America Spains' contribution to the discovery of Spain Newsletter Sign up to receive our newsletter

49. Espanya: Història I Geografia. España: Historia Y Geografia. Spain: History An history and Culture of spain; spain; TODO SOBRE ESPAÑA; http://www.xtec.es/~aguiu1/socials/hispania.htm

Espanya Prehistoria i Antiguitat Medieval Moderna Medieval Materiales Docentes del Departamento de Historia Medieval Al Andalus (CLIO) Materiales para la docencia de la historia medieval El Camino de Santiago El Camino de Santiago Navarra y Pamplona hasta el 905 ... Castillos de la Corona de Castilla Diversos Biblioteca de Historia El Tiempo y la Humanidad (U. Zaragoza) Hispania: Patronato Niceto Alcala-Zamora Historia Virtual History and Culture of Spain ... Archiespa. Directori d'arxius Archivos Estatales Diccionario de Autoridades de la RAE Eusko Ikaskuntza (Sociedad de Estudios Vascos) Primeros asentamientos humanos ... La dictadura franquista

50. Spain -- Primary Documents history of spain Primary Documents. The Visigothic Code 1908 translation by SP Scott of Forum judicum. Visigothic laws towards Spanish http://library.byu.edu/~rdh/eurodocs/spain.html

History of Spain: Primary Documents The Visigothic Code 1908 translation by S.P. Scott of Forum judicum Visigothic laws towards Spanish Jews ( Book XII ) anticipated the much later inquisition. (7th century; English translations) Catalonian Manuscripts From Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley (1031-1555; facsimiles) The Chronicle of Alfonso the Emperor Translation of the Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris , with study and notes Edited by Glenn E. Lipskey. Note: the Chronicle itself begins at Book One (Reign of Alfonso VII of Spain, 1126 - 1157; tranlations, commentary, and apparatus) Latinate Wills in Mediterranean Spain, 1250–1350 Unpublished documents, a portion of the monograph, Jews in the Notarial Culture Edited by Robert I. Burns. (1250 - 1350; transcriptions) Medieval Sourcebook: Iberia (Translations) American Academy of Research Historians of Medieval Spain (AARHMS) Archive (Translations) Note: AARHMS is also the sponsor/compiler of LIBRO: The Library of Iberian Resources Online comprising mostly digitized monographic secondary literature. The Consulate of the Sea and Related Documents Translations of Catalonian maritime documents, with related notes

51. History Of Spain spain history - history (82K) Introduction First Human Settlements Roman Presence Visogothic Kingdom Muslim spain The Reconquest The Catholic Monarchs The http://www.kasbah.com/vitalstats/culture_and_history/history/spain_spain_1.htm

var c = "c2"; Home Travel Guide Flights Cars ... Adventure Tours USA users discount airfare and cheap hotels Spain history of Spain You are here: Spain Your search for history of Spain returned results link status good SPAIN - History History (82K) Introduction First Human Settlements Roman Presence Visogothic Kingdom Muslim Spain The Reconquest The Catholic Monarchs The Discovery of America The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empi... link status good SPAIN - History - First Human Settlements First Human Settlements. 25,000 to 10,000 B.C.: The cave paintings of Pinal, Pena de Candamo, El Pendal, Pasiega, Ribadesella and Altamira express the existence of a fine culture in the Magdalenian... link status good SPAIN - History - Roman Presence Roman Presence. The Roman presence in the Peninsula followed the route of the Greek commercial bases; however, it commenced with a struggle between this great empire and Carthage for the control of... link status good SPAIN - History - Visogothic Kingdom Visigothic Kingdom. By the 5th century A.D., the Visigoths were already a romanized poeple who considered themselves the heirs of the defunct imperial power. Around the middle of this century, the ... link status good SPAIN - History - Muslim Spain Muslim Spain. If you come from Chapter number 6 because you had some problems in understanding the history of Andalucia, please be welcome! If you a newcomer, please be welcome too, and see how int...

52. History Of Malaga Spain spain Malaga. history of Malaga spain. Altur, tourist information about Andalusia, spain history of the city of Malaga. link status good. http://www.kasbah.com/vitalstats/culture_and_history/history/spain_malaga_1.htm

var c = "c2"; Home Travel Guide Flights Cars ... Adventure Tours USA users discount airfare and cheap hotels Spain Malaga history of Malaga Spain You are here: Spain Malaga Your search for history of Malaga Spain returned results SPAIN - Costa del Sol - Malaga - History of the city of Malaga. Altur, tourist information about Andalusia, Spain - History of the city of Malaga. link status good Global Travel Toolbox Books Currency Converter Finance and Insurance Food and Drink Fun and Trivia Language Converter Look Up / Reference luggage Maps Miscellaneous Outdoor Travelling Gear Telecoms and Communications Tickets for Events Travel Magazines Travel Tips Weather Global Travel Toolbox Malaga flights Malaga Car Rental ... Search Amazon.co.uk Travel Search Country Guides City Guides Resort Guides Argentina Aruba Australia Austria Bahamas Barbados Belgium Belize Bolivia Botswana Brazil British Virgin Islands Cambodia Canada Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Czech Republic Denmark Ecuador England Estonia Falkland Islands Fiji Finland France Germany Gibraltar Grand Cayman Greece Guatemala Holland Hungary Iceland

53. Spain's History Of Flight spain. The first recorded Spanish attempt aspiration toward flight. The first balloons were seen over spain soon after 1783. At first http://www.flight100.org/history/spain.html

SPAIN The first recorded Spanish attempt to fly a heavier-than-air machine occurred on 16 May 1793, when Dieto Martín Aguilera, a shepherd from Coruña del Conde, Burgos, apparently made a flight of about 360 meters with his flapping-wing creation. It is impossible to determine how much truth there is to the story of Marin, but it seems that he did achieve some gliding flight, surviving after structural failure and a crash landing. Marín, who had no formal scientific education, was endowed with a special technical ingenuity and is a good example of the ageless human aspiration toward flight. The first balloons were seen over Spain soon after 1783. At first they were usually unmanned, but in the last decade of the 18th century, experimenters or showmen occupied the balloon car. In 1792, a Spanish-built balloon, intended to serve as a military observation post, was demonstrated before King Carlos IV at El Escorial. The balloon had been designed by the French chemist Joseph Louis Proust, who was professor of the Royal Artillery College of Segovia and held the rank of captain. Officers and cadets of the college had helped in the construction. Leonardo Torres Quevedo, a Spanish engineer and inventor, devised the funicular suspension, a fully flexible system that permitted the use of short cars in rigid Zeppelin airships. The Torres airship has a trilobed envelope when inflated. The prototype was built in the Spanish military's Aerostatic Service facility and tested in 1908. The French Astra company acquired the rights of the Torres Quevedo system and built the airships under the name Astra-Torres. During the First World War, the Allied navies successfully used a large quantity of Torres airships (about 20 of the French and more than fifth of the British were used mainly for anti-submarine patrol.)

54. History Of Spain Online history of spain. This history consists of links to the Library of Congress and their overview of Spanish history. Historical Setting. http://www.xmission.com/~dderhak/recipe/spainhistory.htm

Online History of Spain This history consists of links to the Library of Congress and their overview of Spanish History. Historical Setting IBERIA HISPANIA AL ANDALUS ... Spanish Foreign Policy in the Post-Franco Period Back to My Favorite Spanish Recipes :

55. History Of Moorish Spain (711-844) The history of Moorish spain (711844). This map was edited and taken from http//ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~rs143/map.html, http://srproj.lib.calpoly.edu/projects/engl/Zapata_Liziel_L/711.htm

The History of Moorish Spain (711-844) This map was edited and taken from http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~rs143/map.html Various Moslem kingdoms in Al-Andalus ASTURIAS Unconquered regions in Cantabrian mountains remain unorganized Asturias as independent Christian kingdom Covadonga: First Christian victory of the Reconquest by Pelayo over Alcama; Reconquest lasts until 1492. CATALUNYA Charlemagne makes Christian Catalunya into Marca Hispanica. GALICIA (PORTUGAL) Santiago's body is discovered in Compostela Battle of Clavijo ("the Peg"); Santiago intervenes Main Next Web Resources

56. MapZones.com History spain, history, Back to Top. The national history of spain dates back to the fifth century AD, when the Visigoths established a Germanic http://www.mapzones.com/world/europe/spain/historyindex.php

Country Info Spain Introduction Spain General Data Spain Maps Spain Culture ... Spain Time and Date Spain History Back to Top The national history of Spain dates back to the fifth century A.D., when the Visigoths established a Germanic successor state in the former Roman diocese of Hispania. Despite a period of internal political disunity during the Middle Ages, Spain nevertheless is one of the oldest nation-states in Europe. In the late fifteenth century, Spain acquired its current borders and was united under a personal union of crowns by Ferdinand of Aragon (Spanish, Aragon) and Isabella of Castile (Spanish, Castilla). For a period in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, Portugal was part of that Iberian federation. In the sixteenth century, Spain was the foremost European power, and it was deeply involved in European affairs from that period to the eighteenth century. Spain's kings ruled provinces scattered across Europe. The Spanish Empire was global, and the influence of Spanish culture was so pervasive, especially in the Americas, that Spanish is still the native tongue of more than 200 million people outside Spain. Recurrent political instability, military intervention in politics, frequent breakdowns of civil order, and periods of repressive government have characterized modern Spanish history. In the nineteenth century, Spain had a constitutional framework for parliamentary government, not unlike those of Britain and France, but it was unable to develop institutions capable of surviving the social, economic, and ideological stresses of Spanish society.

57. Spain - History THE NATIONAL history of spain dates back to the fifth century AD, when the Visigoths established a Germanic successor state in the former Roman diocese of http://countrystudies.us/spain/2.htm

History Spain Table of Contents THE NATIONAL HISTORY of Spain dates back to the fifth century A.D., when the Visigoths established a Germanic successor state in the former Roman diocese of Hispania. Despite a period of internal political disunity during the Middle Ages, Spain nevertheless is one of the oldest nation-states in Europe. In the late fifteenth century, Spain acquired its current borders and was united under a personal union of crowns by Ferdinand of Aragon (Spanish, Aragon) and Isabella of Castile (Spanish, Castilla). For a period in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, Portugal was part of that Iberian federation. In the sixteenth century, Spain was the foremost European power, and it was deeply involved in European affairs from that period to the eighteenth century. Spain's kings ruled provinces scattered across Europe. The Spanish Empire was global, and the influence of Spanish culture was so pervasive, especially in the Americas, that Spanish is still the native tongue of more than 200 million people outside Spain. Recurrent political instability, military intervention in politics, frequent breakdowns of civil order, and periods of repressive government have characterized modern Spanish history. In the nineteenth century, Spain had a constitutional framework for parliamentary government, not unlike those of Britain and France, but it was unable to develop institutions capable of surviving the social, economic, and ideological stresses of Spanish society.

58. First Service Station With Biodiesel In Spain - History - - Barcelona & Spain Hi First service station with biodiesel in spain. This story was provided to the Hip Guide to spain by the CIVITAS2004 Sustainable Development News Service. http://www.hiptravelguide.com/spain/article-41.html

Site Search Main Menu Home 110+ Barcelona Hotels Hotels 600+ Spanish Hotels Spain Photo Gallery ... Contact Us Topics Architecture Art Books Destinations ... Tips New Stories Salvador Dalí and the Theater-Museum of Figueres Spain Map and Fact Sheet The Universal Forum of Cultures - Barcelona 2004 Opening Ceremonies First service station with biodiesel in Spain ... Parc de la Ciutadella More Hip Guides! Prague Morocco History Print E-mail First service station with biodiesel in Spain First service station with biodiesel in Spain CIVITAS2004-Sustainable Development News TÀRREGA, Lleida, February 25, 2003 – A service station in the town of Tàrrega, in the Lleida region, has opened the first pump in Spain that supplies biodiesel, which is partly made up of vegetable-based oils. This fuel pollutes less, reduces noise and prolongs the life of the engine because lubrication is improved. The biofuel, sold under the name of BDP 30 in the Petromiralles service station at the national N-11 motorway exit at the municipal limit of Tàrrega, is a blend of 30% vegetable-based oils and 70% diesel and is biodegradable and 30% less polluting than traditional diesel. This ecological fuel is sold at the same price as conventional diesel and can be used in all vehicles that run on diesel. It is produced by the manufacturing plant Stocks del Vallés in collaboration with the Catalan Energy Institute of the Generalitat (Regional Government) of Catalonia. The Catalan government envisages that, by 2010, 8% of all diesel consumed in Catalonia will be bio-diesel, in keeping with the European norms on fuel consumption.

59. Spanish History On The Web history of spain Native American Conquest Spanish conquest in the New World (Florida) during 16th century revisited. Roman spain The Roman presence in spain. http://web.uccs.edu/~history/index/spain.html

General Sources Spanish-American War Spanish Armada People S panish H istory Research on the Web European, Asian, African Other History Pages U.S. History Pages Click here for H-Net Reviews On- line reviews of books and other multi-media sources. See especially H-World, H-SAE and H-Frauen-L. General Sources Check out the Spanish History Virtual Library , the largest collection of Spanish historical resources on the 'Net. American Academy of Research Historians of Medieval Spain Dieciocho: Hispanic Englightenment Journal dedicated to the Hispanic Enlightenment (18th century studies in Spain and Latin America). History of Spain Native American Conquest Spanish conquest in the New World (Florida) during 16th century revisited. Roman Spain The Roman presence in Spain. Spanish Civil War in the Basque Country (1936-1937) Spanish American War 1898-1998 Centennial of the Spanish-American War Changing Empires: Reflections at the Centennial of 1898 Conference, letters and more from Rutgers University-New Brunswick.

60. Islamic History In Arabia And Middle East By the time Abd alRahman reached spain, the Arabs from North Africa were already and had begun to write one of the most glorious chapters in Islamic history. http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/Sec5.htm

Islam and Islamic History in Arabia and The Middle East Islam in Spain The message The Hijrah The Rightly Guided Caliphs The Umayyads ... Revival in The Arab East Related Topics The Holy Quran The Faith of Islam Arabic Writing Science and Scholarship in Al-Andalus ... Arabic Numerals ISLAM IN SPAIN: By the time 'Abd al-Rahman reached Spain, the Arabs from North Africa were already entrenched on the Iberian Peninsula and had begun to write one of the most glorious chapters in Islamic history. After their forays into France were blunted by Charles Martel, the Muslims in Spain had begun to focus their whole attention on what they called al-Andalus, southern Spain (Andalusia), and to build there a civilization far superior to anything Spain had ever known. Reigning with wisdom and justice, they treated Christians and Jews with tolerance, with the result that many embraced Islam. They also improved trade and agriculture, patronized the arts, made valuable contributions to science, and established Cordoba as the most sophisticated city in Europe. By the tenth century, Cordoba could boast of a population of some 500,000, compared to about 38,000 in Paris. According to the chronicles of the day, the city had 700 mosques, some 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries - one reportedly housing 500,000 manuscripts and employing a staff of researchers, illuminators, and book binders. Cordoba also had some 900 public baths, Europe's first street lights and, five miles outside the city, the caliphal residence, Madinat al-Zahra. A complex of marble, stucco, ivory, and onyx, Madinat al-Zahra took forty years to build, cost close to one-third of Cordoba's revenue, and was, until destroyed in the eleventh century, one of the wonders of the age. Its restoration, begun in the early years of this century, is still under way.

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