21. Indigenous Peoples Council On Biocolonialism Alejandro Argumedo, quechua from Peru, of the indigenous peoples BiodiversityNetwork, likened the regime to “burglers who break into our house calling http://www.ipcb.org/issues/agriculture/htmls/2004/pr_cop7.html

Search IPCB: Use for more specific results Press Release Dated: February 19, 2004 Contact: Debra Harry, dharry@ipcb.org Endorsing Organizations: Asamblea Nacional Indigena Plural por la Autonomia (Mexico) Asia Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity Committee (regional) Asociacion Napguana (Panama) Centro de Estudios Multidisciplinarios Aymara CEM-Aymara (Bolivia) Human Rights and Democracy Movement (Tonga) Indigenous Network on Economies and Trade (Canada) Indigenous Peoples Biodiversity Network (Peru) Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (US) International Indian Treaty Council Instituto de Desarrollo Integral de Kuna Yala (Panama) Na Koa Ikaika o Ka Lahui Hawai`i (Hawaii) Nga Wahine Tiaki o Te Ao (Aotearoa) Red Nacional de Mujeres Indigenas Sobre Biodiversida de Panama Tebtebba Foundation (Phillipines)

22. Indigenous Peoples And Poverty The Cases Of Bolivia, Guatemala, social, economic and cultural governing structures of the quechua, which predate Plant,R., indigenous peoples and Poverty Reduction A Case Study of Guatemala http://www.minorityrights.org/Dev/mrg_dev_title12_LatinAmerica/mrg_dev_title12_L

23. The Constitution Of 88 :: Indigenous Peoples In Brazil - ISA 1992), aside from recognizing the existence of indigenous peoples, declares itself andonly admits as official languages, aside from Spanish, quechua and Aymara http://www.socioambiental.org/pib/english/rights/const.shtm

find your way: Indigenous peoples in Brazil Rights Can the Indian...? The Indian Statute ... International The Constitution of 88 :: Introduction :: Right to be different :: Rights to their land :: Other regulations ... :: Constitutions of other countries Introduction The constitutional Rights of the indigenous peoples are expressed in a specific chapter of the Constitution of 1988 (title VIII, "Of the Social Order ", chapter VIII, "of the indigenous peoples"), aside from other regulations throughout the text and an article of the Acts of the Transitory Constitutional Regulations. This deals with the Rights marked by at least two innovative and important concepts in relation to prior Constitutions and the so-called The Indian Statute. The first innovation is the abandonment of the assimilationist point of view, which considered the indigenous peoples as a transitory social category, destined to disappear. The second innovation is that the rights of the indigenous peoples over their lands are defined in the concept of original rights that are prior to the creation of the State itself. This is a result of the de facto historical recognition that the indigenous peoples were the first occupants of Brazil. The new Constitution establishes, in this manner, a new outlook for the relations between the State, Brazilian society and the indigenous peoples .

24. South America Indigenous Studies Native South America from 2003 indigenous peoples Human Rights Kechuaymara Kechuaymara works to improvethe quality of life of the Aymara and quechua collectivities in Bolivia http://www.archaeolink.com/south_america_indigenous_studies.htm

Indigenous South America Home You may want to try these pages for additional information: - Indigenous Studies General Resources - Native Americans General Resources South American indigenous people by tribes, associations Aymara Ashaninka Cofan Guahibo ... Yanomami Amazon Alliance " The Amazon Alliance works to defend the rights, territories and environment of indigenous and traditional peoples of the Amazon Basin. The Alliance is an initiative born out of the partnership between indigenous and traditional peoples of the Amazon and groups and individuals who share their concerns for the future of the Amazon and its peoples." Learn about the organization, its activities and keep up on the news. - illustrated - From Amazonalliance.org - http://www.amazonalliance.org/ Amazon Conservation TeamHome Page "The Amazon Conservation Team works in partnership with indigenous people in conserving biodiversity, health and culture in tropical America." Learn about their programs and there is a page for kids. - illustrated - From ethnobotany.org - http://www.ethnobotany.org/

25. AllRefer Reference - Peru - Indigenous Peoples | Peruvian Information Resource also the ones with the highest percentages of quechua and Aymara as part of the strategyfor ruling conquered peoples the indigenous people were defeated http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/peru/peru55.html

You are here allRefer Reference Peru History ... Peru Peru Indigenous Peoples The word indio , as applied to native highland people of Quechua and Aymara origin, carries strong negative meanings and stereotypes among non-native Peruvians. For that reason, the ardently populist Velasco regime attempted with some success to substitute the term peasant (campesino) to accompany the many far-reaching changes his government directed at improving the socioeconomic conditions in the highlands. Nevertheless, traditional usage has prevailed in many areas in reference to those who speak native languages, dress in native styles, and engage in activities defined as native. Peruvian society ascribes to them a caste status to which no one else aspires. The ingrained attitudes and stereotypes held by the mistikuna (the Quechua term for mestizo people) toward the runakuna (native peoplethe Quechua term for themselves) in most highland towns have led to a variety of discriminatory behaviors, from mocking references to "brute" or "savage" to obliging native Americans to step aside, sit in the back of vehicles, and in general humble themselves in the presence of persons of higher status. The pattern of ethnoracist denigration has continued despite all of the protests and reports, official policies, and compelling accounts of discrimination described in Peruvian novels published since the beginning of the twentieth century. The regions and departments with the largest populations of native peoples are construed to be the most backward, being the poorest, least educated, and less developed. They are also the ones with the highest percentages of Quechua and Aymara speakers. The reasons for the perpetuation of colonial values with respect to autochthonous peoples is complex, being more than a simple perseverance of custom. The social condition of the population owes its form to the kinds of expectations embedded in the premises and workings of the nation's institutions. These are not easily altered. Spanish institutions of conquest were implanted into colonial life as part of the strategy for ruling conquered peoples: the indigenous people were defeated and captured and thus, as spoils of war, were as exploitable as mineral wealth or land. In the minds of many highland mestizos as well as betteroff urbanites, they still are.

26. LANGUAGES-ON-THE-WEB: BEST QUECHUA LINKS Runasimi Llikanpi quechua on the Net. Barry indigenous peoples in Peruon Abya Yala Net (Excite) abyayala.nativeweb.org/cultures/peru/index.php http://www.languages-on-the-web.com/links/link-quechua.htm

language links QUECHUA HOME THE BEST LINKS GUARANTEE Unlike many other web sites related to languages, only serious and useful sites are listed here. If you know a really good site for learning this language do email us ALL LINKS NAT-LANG (1996): Re: new site for Quechua Language on the Web (GoTo) bioc09.uthscsa.edu/natnet/archive/ng/96/0100.html New site for Quechua Language on the Web Richard A. Rhodes (rrhodes@cogsci.berkeley.edu) Mon, 11 Mar 1996 13:01:20 -0800 Articles sorted by: [ date ][ thread ][ subject ][ author ] Next article: James J. Roper: "Re: new site for Quechua... QUECHUA LINGUISTICS (GoTo) dolphin.upenn.edu/~scoronel/qling.html Quechua Linguistics Page On this page you will find links to other sites that contain information directly related to the study of Quechua linguistics. Topics range from historical linguistics to sociolinguistics, with a broad range of relevant... Quechua (GoTo) www.cus.cam.ac.uk/~pah1003/i_HOME.HTM QUECHUA The language of the people who built this.. and of millions of their descendants in the Andes today. Welcome CONTENTS Quechua Bibliography Links to the Best Quechua Websites So You Want to Learn Quechua? Too Much Spanish In Your Quechua... Quechua - Home Page de Jorge R. Alderetes

27. INDIGENOUS-FOLKLORE-TRADITIONS outside world on an isolated indigenous tribe, the Many native peoples of the BrazilianAmazon have The quechua Presented by Granada Television International http://www.latinamericanstudies.villanova.edu/media/indigenous.htm

Log on Media Resources-Latin America Feature Films Historical Videos Videos on Indigenous Peoples Videos on Current Issues ... Slides Latin American Studies Program Requirements Courses Faculty ... Events Villanova University Prospective Students Students Parents Your browser does not support JavaScript! INDIGENOUS-FOLKLORE-TRADITIONS City of the Gods Hosted by John Rhys-Davies Presented by New Dominion Pictures ; in association with the Archaeological Videocassette (VHS)(28 min.) Location: Instructional Media Services Call Number: VT1186 VHS Murals found at Teotihuacán site provide archaeologists with information about this ancient metropolis. Notes: Episode from the television program Archaeology. Credits: Host, John Rhys-Davies; Producers, Tom Naughton, Nicolas Valcour ; director, Bertrand Morin ; writer, George Bledsoe. The Fall of the Maya An ARKIOS Production in association with the Archaeological Institute of America at Boston University and The Learning Channel. Videocassette (VHS)(23 min.)

28. Indigenous Peoples Of The World An Introduction to the Sami People. Tibetans, Tibet Left in the Wilderness. quechua,Historical Timeline ; indigenous Identity in Modern Bolivia quechua Culture. http://www.nbchs.north-battleford.sk.ca/Heroes&Mentors/peoples.html

Native Studies 21 Indigenous Peoples of the World Australian Aborigines Australian Indigenous Population BugBios: Australian Aborigines Food of the Australian Aborigines Maori Maori Oganisations of New Zealand Ainu The Ainu Museum Sami An Introduction to the Sami People Tibetans Tibet: Left in the Wilderness Quechua Historical Timeline Indigenous Identity in Modern Bolivia Quechua Culture Yanomamo Miskitos The Miskitos Karen The Karen Homepage Maasi Maasai Association Zulu Zulu Culture Maya Maya Civilization Inuit Reference Book Articles List NBCHS October 2002

29. Across The Americas, Indigenous Peoples Make Themselves Heard anymore, said German Jimenez, a teacher and quechua from the Potosi, Jimenez haswitnessed a flowering of indigenous culture and There are even people now who http://www.truthout.org/docs_03/printer_102003F.shtml

Go to Original Across the Americas, Indigenous Peoples Make Themselves Heard By Héctor Tobar Los Angeles Times Sunday 19 October 2003 Above the rocky bowl of La Paz, this vast township of brick and adobe homes stretches across a dry plain. This is where the Aymara Indians of western Bolivia come to live and work when their farms can no longer feed them. For the past week, the hardscrabble order of El Alto gave way to a fervor of rebellion. Armed with the traditional weapons of the Aymara people - sticks, slingshots and muscle - its residents fought the army, built barricades and derailed a train, cutting off and shutting down the capital below them. "We are not going to allow ourselves to be pushed around anymore," said Bernaldo Castillo Mollo, a 37-year-old Aymara bricklayer and jack-of-all-trades who was shot in the foot during the protests. "So that our children have a better life than us, we are willing to die." The Indian-led movement that brought down Bolivian President Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada last week was only the most recent and startling expression of a growing militancy and political assertiveness among the native peoples of the Americas. In Ecuador and in Guatemala, indigenous leaders arguably wield more influence in local and national affairs than in any time since the Spanish conquest. And in Chile and Mexico, resistance to the changes brought by the global economy are helping to feed a renaissance of indigenous organizations.

30. South & Central America Links Cyber quechua dolphin.upenn.edu/~scoronel/quechua.html. Eland Net; information highwayto Unrepresented Nations, indigenous peoples, and National Minorities http://users.skynet.be/kola/link-sa.htm

Interesting Links... AILLA (the archive of indigenous Languages of Latin America): www.ailla.org/site/welcome.html www.albumdesierto.cl/inicio.htm#top Annotated Amazonia www.msu.edu/~aliceabr/amazonia.htm Annotated Bibliography of Publications Relating to Indigenous Peoples and Traditional Resource Rights users.ox.ac.uk/~wgtrr/bib1.htm Anthro Net home1.gte.net/ericjw1/indigenous.html Association for Traditional Studies www.traditionalstudies.org/ Aymara Net www.aymaranet.org/ai1english.html Caribbean Amerindian Centrelink www.centrelink.org/ CEDM Liwen (Centre for Indigenous Studies LIWEN - info on current Mapuche situation and culture): liwen_temuko.tripod.com/liwen.html Center for Cuban Studies www.cubaupdate.org/ Center for World Indigenous Studies www.cwis.org Chilean Indigenous People Portal www.beingindigenous.org Chilean Indigenous spoken living languages and extinct languages www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Chile www.naya.org.ar/index.htm COICA APA (Guyana) www.sdnp.org.gy/apa APA (Guyana) www.asambleanacional.gov.ve/ns2/partidos.asp?codp=4 CIDOB (Bolivia) www.cidob-bo.org

31. Native American Languages from Aztec, tobacco, from Taino, and condor, from quechua, are examples Indians.orgHome indigenous peoples Literature Index Page Native Wire Today s News http://www.indians.org/welker/americas.htm

Indigenous Peoples' Literature Indigenous Languages Cheyenne Language Web Site Conservation of Endangered Languages Ernie's Learn to Speak a Little Hawaiian Ethnologue: Languages of the world ... University of Michigan Linguistics Archive History and Discussion of Native American Languages At the time of first European contact, probably close to 1,000 American Indian languages were spoken in North, Central, and South America. Although the number of languages in daily use has steadily declined because of persecution and pressures on the Indians to adopt English, Spanish, and other originally European languages, well over 700 different American Indianor, as they are sometimes called, Amerindian or Native Americanlanguages are spoken today. In the United States many of the most famous linguists of the early 20th centuryamong them Franz BOAS, Leonard BLOOMFIELD, and Edward SAPIRtranscribed and analyzed North American Indian languages. Many descriptions of Indian languages are important in the literature of the linguistic school known as American structuralism. Today interest in Native American Indian languages is increasing, and Americanists, as those who study the languages are called, hold regular meetings to report on their findings. Current research on the native languages of the Americas is published in several periodicals, notably the International Journal of American Linguistics.

32. Indigenous Peoples Translate this page Las dificultades en el análisis del texto se dieron en la traducciónde la versión original del castellano al quechua y viceversa. http://www.itpcentre.org/trad_pachamama.htm

33. GTZ - Indigenous Peoples In Latin America & The Caribbean Ethnically, linguistically and culturally the majority of the indigenous peoplesbelong to the quechua and Aymara (historically the realm of the Inca in the http://www.gtz.de/indigenas/english/

Indigenous Peoples Home Home Introduction German DC Other donors International Instruments DC approaches Service Glossary Contact ... GTZ Home The indigenous peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean are those sectors of the population which are historically related to the pre-colonial peoples of the American continent, that is to say, the "original inhabitants of the sub-continent". The estimates of their percentage of the total population differ greatly. Numbers vary from 12.6% (World Bank) to 7.2% (Instituto Indigenista Interamericano in Mexico). Overview These differences are not only the result of diverse definitions of indigenous peoples but are also due to their self-definition and the different methods of population census. The majority of Latin America’s indigenous peoples live in Bolivia Guatemala Ecuador Mexico and Peru - roughly 90% of the total Latin American indigenous population. Uruguay is the only country in Central and South America today with no indigenous population.

34. GTZ - Indigenous Peoples - Development Cooperation Approaches: Priority Area Edu peoples such as Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Guatemala and directs itself particularlyto the large populations of indigenous peoples (quechua, Aymara, Maya). http://www.gtz.de/indigenas/english/dc-approaches/priority-education.htm

Indigenous Peoples Home Introduction German DC Other donors ... International Instruments DC approaches Priority areas Case projects Service ... GTZ Home Priority Area: Education Education and above all basic education is a fundamental precondition for social participation and for building democratic structures. In order for this to succeed, a broad participation in education must be ensured and education has to be designed according to target groups' needs. The German Technical Cooperation in Latin America, has supported approaches of bilingual and inter-cultural basic education since the late seventies (first project in Puno, Peru). Thus, the GTZ was one of the first international supporting entities for these innovative educational concepts that were tailor-made for indigenous peoples. Children of indigenous peoples, particularly in the rural areas, have almost no Spanish knowledge on their first day at school. A bilingual basic education gives them the opportunity to learn Spanish and to acquire the skills that are necessary for social participation and further professional development. At the same time, a bilingual, inter-cultural basic education contributes to maintaining indigenous languages and cultures. An inter-cultural education is also an important precondition for social tolerance, mutual understanding and interest in a multi-cultural life together.

35. Comments On Indigenous Data Availability to identify a specific indigenous group (for example, quechua, Aymara, etc Statisticsagencies could include a special survey module for indigenous peoples. http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/pfii/Datacoll (World Bank) english.htm

PFII/2004/WS.1/11 Original: English UNITED NATIONS NATIONS UNIES DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS Division for Social Policy and Development Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues WORKSHOP ON DATA COLLECTION AND DISAGGREGATION FOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLES New York , 19-21 January 2004) World Bank Contribution to the Expert Workshop on Data Collection and Disaggregation for Indigenous Peoples What the World Bank has done In 1994, at the start of UN Decade for Indigenous Peoples, the World Bank published Indigenous People and Poverty in Latin America: An Empirical Analysis The study documented that most Indigenous Peoples in Latin America , as distinguished from non-indigenous or Spanish-speaking people, live in deep poverty. In Bolivia , while more than half of the total population is poor, over three-fourths of the monolingual indigenous population is poor. In Guatemala , while 38 percent of all households are poor, 87 percent of indigenous households are poor. In Mexico , municipalities where less than 10 percent of the population is indigenous have a poverty rate of 18 percent; municipalities where more than 70 percent the population is indigenous have a poverty rate of over 80 percent.

36. Immanuel Wallerstein On Ecuador: "Indigenous Peoples, Populist Colonels, And Glo is divided into three geographic zones the Altiplano, where quechuaspeaking peoples Butthe most serious problem was that the indigenous peoples were so http://www.globalaware.org/indig.htm

Dossier on the OCP pipeline in Ecuador: Essays and reports on a controversial pipeline to take crude oil from the Amazon to the Pacific Ocean. Understanding Ecuador: "Indigenous Peoples, Populist Colonels, and Globalization" by Immanuel Wallerstein Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm Commentary No. 33, Feb. 1, 2000 In the first month of the twenty-first century, a small drama was enacted in Ecuador, a country whose politics seem obscure to most people elsewhere in the world. This small drama however illustrated one of the key issues of the next fifty years. If the last half of the twentieth century was a period of so-called decolonization everywhere - that is, the end of colonial rule by European powers over non-European territories - it is now the turn of the "internally colonized" to make their voices heard. The Vice-President, now President, announced that he would continue the economic policies against which CONAIE was protesting, and that he would seek to punish the army rebels. The U.S. government promptly recognized the new government. The head of CONAIE emerged from hiding briefly to announce that the army had betrayed CONAIE by breaking their solemn promises, that he would seek to negotiate with the new President, but that if, within 3-6 months, there were no changes, the situation might well deteriorate into civil war.

37. USAID: WID Publication: Educating Indigenous Girls In Latin America: Closing The 40 million people in Latin America, or 10 percent of the total population, are indigenous,including Mayan peoples in Guatemala and the quechua and Aymara in http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/educgap97.htm

Educating Indigenous Girls in Latin America: Closing the Gap Information Bulletin, October 1997 A Publication of USAID's Office of Women in Development USAID: Office of Women in Development Publications Extending the Benefits of Education An estimated 40 million people in Latin America, or 10 percent of the total population, are indigenous, including Mayan peoples in Guatemala and the Quechua and Aymara in Bolivia and Peru. Indigenous people live throughout the region but constitute a majority of the total population in Bolivia and significant minorities in Ecuador, Guatemala, and Peru. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is working with Latin American governments and indigenous leaders to improve the standard of living for all indigenous people. Increasing educational opportunities represents an important contribution toward that goal. In most Latin American countries, gender parity in education has been achieved for children (United Nations, 1995). The education of indigenous girls, however, lags behind the rate for indigenous boys and still further behind the rate for non- indigenous boys and girls. As a group, indigenous females have the lowest literacy rate in Latin America. Given the documented benefits of girls' education in improving the economic and health status of families, it is important to extend education to girls who have been marginalized for cultural, economic, linguistic, or other reasons.

38. International Literacy Explorer - Peru - Background privilege has generally followed ethnic lines, with the indigenous peoples beingthe is still a high percentage of monolingual quechua speakers, especially in http://www.literacyonline.org/explorer/peru_back.html

Literacy and Civic Education Program for Indigenous and Peasant Women, Peru Background Project Overview Activities Outcomes and Implications Resources ... Questions The Issue in Brief In this last decade of the twentieth century, basic education has come to be considered by many international organizations as a fundamental human right. In addition to this ideological stand, societies around the worldand their governmentsare coming to realize the practical importance of a citizenry with at least basic literacy and numeracy skills to be able to participate in our increasingly global marketplace. Perhaps more for such economic reasons, then, rather than ideological ones, it seems that every day national governments are mandating the education of their populations, and in many cases, non-governmental organizations are coming forward to help fulfill the mandate. But even with the recognition of the social and economic importance of literacy and the increase in programs to educate the people, many segments of the population find it difficult to obtain an education. This is especially true in developing countries, and it is most often women and rural peasants who suffer the lowest literacy rates. Many cultures believe that it is not necessary to educate women, since their place is in the home and they will therefore not have much contact with the world beyond their own small communities. However, there are many factors in today's changing world that invalidate this reasoning. Two important ones are the increase in many areas of single-parent homes with the mother as the only parent (whether from the effects of war, disease or, to a lesser degree in third world countries, divorce), and the fact that mothers' literacy and education levels often greatly influence the health and achievements of the children. Therefore, it is imperative that both already-existing and new programs in the process of elaboration make an effort to focus on these populations. Policymakers and literacy practitioners need to understand the social context of these populations and design programs that address that context in terms of both curriculum content and scheduling.

39. Bill's Aboriginal Links: International of the Andes indigenous peoples of Ecuador Machu Picchu (Peru) World HeritageSites in Peru quechua/Runasimi The Aymara Page indigenous peoples in Chile http://www.bloorstreet.com/300block/aborintl.htm

Aboriginal Links International Latin America Australia New Zealand International ... Environment Latin America Latin American Network Resources Latin World WWW Virtual Library: Latin American Studies Abya Yala Net ... Spanish to English Automatic Translation Mexico Society and Culture of Mexico Map of Mexico LANIC: Mexico Links Latin World Mexican Links ... Bibliography: Books About Mexico Central America Central America Maps (Magellan) Institute for Central American Development Studies Indigenous Peoples in Central America Maya Peoples in Mexico and Guatemala ... Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Panama) South America South America Maps (Magellan) GAIA Forest Conservation: South America WHA: Native Peoples in South America) Indigenous Literature (South America) ... Amanaka'a Amazon Network Australian Links Australia Maps (Magellan) WWW Virtual Library: Aboriginal Studies Koori Net The Term "Koori" ... OzWeb New Zealand Links New Zealand Maps (Magellan) New Zealand/Aotearoa on the Web Introduction to The Maori Maoritanga ... New Zealand Information Other Pacific Links WWW Virtual Library: Pacific Studies Maps of the Pacific (Magellan) South Pacific Information Network Pacific Island Report (News) ... Oceanian Governments Online International Links Hieros Gamos: Native Peoples Law News OneWorld: Land Rights Updates Center for World Indigenous Studies International Indian Treaty Council ... Court Upholds Border Crossing Right (1997, Can)

40. Native American Definition Meaning Information Explanation The preferred term in Latin America is indigenous peoples. . Caribbean. Mesoamerican. Andean.quechua; Aymara; Diaguita; Atacame±o; Saraguro. SubAndean. http://www.free-definition.com/Native-American.html

A B C D ... Contact Beta 0.71 powered by: akademie.de PHP PostgreSQL Google News about your search term Native American Native Americans (also Native North Americans American Indians Amerindians , or Red Indians ) are indigenous people s and descendants of those who lived in the Americas prior to the Europe an colonization . Many of these tribally affiliated ethnic group s endure today as political communities. The name "Indians" was bestowed by Christopher Columbus , who mistakenly believed that the places he found them were among the islands to the southeast of Asia known to Europeans as the Indies. (See further discussion below). Canadians generally use the term First Nations (or sometimes aboriginals ) to refer to Native Americans. In Alaska , because of legal use in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANSCA) and because of the presence of the Inuit Yupik , and Aleut peoples, the term Alaskan Native predominates. (See further discussion below.) Native Americans officially make up the majority of the population in Bolivia Peru and Guatemala and are significant in most other former Spanish colonies, with the exception of

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