41. U Of M Website Can Help Diagnose Plant Diseases Early diagnosis of plant disease problems is the most critical step in managingplant pathogens and minimizing their impact, says Beckerman. http://www.extension.umn.edu/extensionnews/2002/PlantDiseases.html

June 4, 2002 U of M website can help diagnose plant diseases If you have pallid petunias or cankered cucumbers, a visit to a University of Minnesota website can help you figure out the cause of the problem. Two new additions to the Plant Disease Diagnostics website at http://www.extension.umn.edu/projects/yardandgarden/diagnostics/ are designed to help you diagnose vegetable and bedding plant diseases. The diagnostics website is a project of the plant pathology staff of the U of M Extension Service's Yard and Garden Clinic. The website guides users through the process of diagnosing plant diseases. Plant categories include bedding plants, fruit, roses, shrubs and vines, trees, turf and vegetables. After clicking on a category, you begin by identifying the affected host plant. Then you can narrow down the possible problems affecting the plant. What if you can't identify your host plant? "There are links to help with that process," says Janna Beckerman, U of M Extension plant pathologist. "With the recent addition of two new categories, bedding plants and vegetables, you can now access information to help diagnose problems with these plants. We will continue to add new host plants, so we encourage you the check back soon if you don't find what you're looking for on the first visit." Once you have clicked on the name of the host plant, the next step is to determine which part of the plant is affected-leaves, flowers, stems or roots. Links take you to a page with photographs of common disease problems and descriptions of symptoms. This page helps you match the problems you are seeing with a specific disease.

42. Applied Genetics News: PCR Detects Plant Pathogens causing pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, in 20 to 30 min. Untilnow, PCR tests have not been widely used for diagnosis of plant diseases, http://articles.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0DED/is_5_22/ai_81211904

@import url(/css/us/style.css); @import url(/css/us/searchResult1.css); @import url(/css/us/articles.css); Advanced Search Home Help IN all publications this publication Reference Automotive Business Computing Entertainment Health News Reference Sports YOU ARE HERE Articles Applied Genetics News Dec, 2001 Content provided in partnership with Print friendly Tell a friend Find subscription deals PCR Detects Plant Pathogens Applied Genetics News Dec, 2001 Cepheid, Inc. (1190 Borregas Ave., Sunnyvale, CA 94089-1302; Tel: 408/541-4191, Fax: 408/541-4192; Website: www.cepheid.com) has entered into a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to develop DNA tests for rapid, field diagnosis of plant diseases threatening major cash crops. The tests will be developed and optimized for use on Cepheid's portable Smart Cycler TD and its GeneXpert systems. Scientists with the USDA's Agricultural Research Service (ARS) will design DNA primers and probes to detect organisms responsible for several diseases posing serious threats, including citrus canker, Karnal bunt of wheat, Pierce's disease in grape vines, and plum pox in stone fruits. Cepheid retains first rights to license resulting diagnostic tests for commercial use on its systems. The company expects to supply the first samples of lyophilized, high- stability, high-performance testing kits for evaluation by the USDA during the first half of 2002. Employing real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Cepheid's portable systems are capable of detecting trace levels of DNA from disease-causing pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, in 20 to 30 min. Until now, PCR tests have not been widely used for diagnosis of plant diseases, because they are typically performed on costly instruments available only in laboratories.

43. Plant Disease contains brief and timely reports of new diseases, new disease outbreaks, new hosts,and pertinent new observations of plant diseases and pathogens worldwide. http://www.nonprofitjournals.org/journals/plant_disease.htm

Home Journals Directory Journals by Organization About Us ... Subscribe Now The American Phytopathological Society 3340 Pilot Knob Road, St. Paul, MN 55121 U.S.A. Phone: +1.651.454.7250 Fax: +1.651.454.0766 www.apsnet.org aps@scisoc.org Plant Disease An International Journal of Applied Plant Pathology Purpose and Scope: Plant Disease is the leading international journal for rapid reporting of research on new diseases, epidemics, and methods of disease control. It covers basic and applied research, which focuses on practical aspects of disease diagnosis and treatment. Monthly feature articles summarize current information on specific diseases. The popular Disease Notes section contains brief and timely reports of new diseases, new disease outbreaks, new hosts, and pertinent new observations of plant diseases and pathogens worldwide. The online version of Plant Disease includes interpretive summaries and e-Xtra articles that include supplemental data tables and additional figures and photos as well as color versions of illustrations shown in black and white in the print journals. Plant Disease ranked in the top 10 journals for impact on research and teaching efforts in the crop sciences according to Literature of Crop Science , a project published by Cornell University press.

44. U Of A - Department Of Plant Pathology of important contemporary concepts relative to the genetics, physiology, biochemistry,and molecular biology of plant pathogens and plant diseases. http://www.uark.edu/depts/plntpath/graduate.html

Graduate Program For more information about the Department of Plant Pathology, contact Dr. S.M. Lim (Department Head) **New Distinguished Doctoral Fellowships** **Graduate Student Financial Opportunities** Degree Opportunities in Plant Pathology ... For additional information / Graduate School Catalog The Department The Department of Plant Pathology at the University of Arkansas has a strong graduate faculty and offers programs leading to the Bachelor of Science, Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees. The B.S. degree in plant protection and pest management provides students with a well rounded background in managing plant health while the M.S. and Ph. D. curricula offer intensive training in applied and fundamental aspects of the science of plant pathology. The Department maintains well-balanced research programs ranging from fundamental studies of host-parasite physiology to more applied studies of disease control methods for major crops including rice, soybean, cotton, wheat, sorghum, fruits and vegetables. The Department has particularly strong areas of emphasis in biological control of diseases and weeds, virology, fungal biology and nematology. The Curriculum U ndergraduate studies: The B.S. degree in Plant Protection and Pest Management. This curriculum provides students pursuing a B.S. degree in agriculture with sound basic training in the biological and physical sciences, in communications and humanities and specific instruction in Plant Pathology. Students completing this curriculum are generally well prepared to pursue graduate studies or enter positions in private industry or government agencies requiring a strong background in plant protection, summer internships are available in Plant Pathology with

45. Plant Pathology PLPA6503 Bacterial and Mycoplasmal plant pathogens (SP) plant pathogens bacteriaand mycoplasma, the types of diseases they cause, their identification, culture http://www.uark.edu/admin/urelinfo/CatalogofStudies/OLD_CATALOGS/98-99/bumpers/P

PLANT PATHOLOGY (PLPA) Sung M. Lim, Head of the Department, 217 Plant Sciences Building, 575-2446 UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS KIM, RIGGS; PROFESSORS GERGERICH, KIRKPATRICK, LEE, LIM, ROBBINS, ROTHROCK, TEBEEST; UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR EMERITUS SCOTT; PROFESSORS EMERITI CRALLEY, DALE, FULTON, JONES; ASSOCIATE PROFESSORS CORRELL, FENN, MILUS, RUPE; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR YANG Plant Pathology as a discipline seeks to understand the interrelationships of plants with the abiotic and biotic agents that affect plant health and productivity with the goal of minimizing the impacts of plant diseases on agriculture and human health. Scientific training within the department focuses on the nature, cause and management of plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes. The Plant Pathology option in the Plant Protection/Pest Management major provides for scientific and technical education preparing students for positions of leadership and responsibility in the expanding field of pest managment. Career opportunities include positions in research, education, and agricultural industries as IPM consultants, extension specialists, research technicians, federal and state inspectors, etc. Students successfully completing these requirements also may wish to enter advanced programs of study leading to the Master of Science and/or Ph.D. degrees with a major in Plant Pathology or Plant Science, respectively. Further details of the Plant Pathology option in the Plant Protection/Pest Management major can be obtained from the head of the Department of Plant Pathology.

46. Threatening Plant Diseases Not Reported, Or Of Limited Distribution, In The U.S. Threatening plant diseases not Reported, or of Limited Distribution accepted commonnames A disease can be The forest pathogens were provided as a consensus http://www.na.fs.fed.us/aps_forestpath/threat/diseases_not_reported.htm

Threatening Plant Diseases not Reported, or of Limited Distribution, in the U.S. Type* Disease*** Pathogen Major Host 1995- Distribution[Needs an update] Threat** Fo Larch canker Lachnellula willcommii Larch Europe Fo Brown rust of larch Triphragmiopsis laricinum Larch China Fo "oak disease" Phytophthora quercina sp nov. Oak Europe Fo Needle blight Cercospora pini-densiflorae Pine Japan Fo Resin top disease Cronartium flaccidum 2-needled Pines Europe Fo Pine twist rust Melampsora pinitorqua 2-needled Pines Europe Fo (blue stain of beech) Ceratocystis nothofagi Nothofagus S. America Fo (armillaria root disease) Armillaria novae-zelandiae Hardwoods and pine Australia, New Zealand, PNG Fo (blue stain of beech) Ophiostoma valdivianum Nothofagus S. America Fo Phytophthora disease of alders Phytophthora alni Alder Europe Fo (root disease and wilt) Leptographium truncatum All pines New Zealand, S. America, Canada Fo Watermark disease Erwinia salicis willow Europe, Japan Fo Pink disease Erythricium salmonicolor fruit trees, woody perennials Humid tropics, FL, LA, MS Fo Sudden Oak Death Phytophthora ramorum Oaks, Ericaceae

47. Coop Media "Plant Disease" Titles 1999, color. An introduction to plant diseases and pathogens and their control. Includesdiseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas and nematodes. http://www.uwex.edu/ces/media/catalog/plantdis.html

PLANT DISEASES See Also: Gardening Plants and Flowers CARROT DISEASES color Features pictures and descriptions of a variety of carrot diseases and suggests some solutions. 28 SLIDES, SCRIPT. DISEASE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR COLE CROP GROWERS color Features pictures and descriptions of diseases of cole crops and suggests some solutions. 30 SLIDES, SCRIPT. DISEASES OF EVERGREENS color Presents illustrations of 36 diseases and physiological disorders affecting evergreens in Wisconsin. For use by agents in expanding their own knowledge and ability to identify such diseases, and as source material in conducting educational programs. Other materials should be used to supplement the information provided. 36 SLIDES, SCRIPT. DISEASES OF FLOWERING PLANTS IN WISCONSIN color Illustrates 49 common or potentially important diseases affecting some of the more popular flowering plants in Wisconsin. 53 SLIDES, SCRIPT. DISEASES OF SNAP BEANS color Features pictures and descriptions of a variety of snap bean diseases and suggests some solutions. 35 SLIDES, SCRIPT. FRUIT DISEASES color Presents examples of diseases common to apples, cherries, plums, peaches, raspberries, blackberries, grapes and strawberries, and discusses remedies for treating them. 92 SLIDES, SCRIPT.

48. More People Are Getting Sick From Eating Fresh Fruits lack the appropriate facilities for working with human pathogens, which are management,that have worked well in controlling other plant diseases would likely http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2003-01/aps-mpa012703.php

Public release date: 27-Jan-2003 Contact: Cindy Ash cash@scisoc.org American Phytopathological Society More people are getting sick from eating fresh fruits St. Paul, MN (January 27, 2003) Salmonella, E. coli, shigellosis, hepatitis A, and Norwalk these food-borne diseases can produce symptoms that run from the mild to life-threatening. The young and old are particularly vulnerable and while consumption of beef and poultry have been the most common sources of such infections, fresh fruits and vegetables are being increasingly implicated in such outbreaks. So much so, that plant disease scientists are now taking a closer look at this issue. "Historically, human pathogens like E. coli and Salmonella have rarely been associated with plants, so plant disease scientists have not looked at them directly," says J.W. Buck, a plant pathologist at the University of Georgia. But that is changing, says Buck, as such incidences continue to increase. Buck says there is no single reason why the number of reported produce-related outbreaks in the U.S. per year doubled between 1973-1987 and 1988-1992 and why they continue to rise. Possible explanations include the simple fact that we are eating more fruits and vegetables than ever before. But experts agree that there is more to it than that and that our food production practices likely bear some responsibility. But identifying the exact point along the way, from field to grocery store, where a strawberry or head of lettuce, for example, might have become contaminated can be difficult, if not impossible. Unlike other commodities such as beef and chicken, which are rigorously inspected, methods to detect pathogens on fresh produce are less advanced and the sporadic nature of most contamination further limits the effectiveness of testing.

49. Syllabus For PATH 3530 pathogenesis and the role of plant diseases in plant production. Using specific examples,the student will be introduced to all major types of plant pathogens. http://www.plant.uga.edu/Syllabi/3530scherm.htm

//Top Navigational Bar III v3.4.1 (By BrotherCake @ cake@brothercake.net) //Permission granted/modified by Dynamicdrive.com to include script in archive //For this and 100's more DHTML scripts, visit http://www.dynamicdrive.com Syllabus for PATH 3530 Introductory Plant Pathology Spring Semester 2003 Harald Scherm, Instructor Course goals: To provide the student with concepts that form the basis for understanding the causes, mechanisms, and control of plant diseases. The course emphasizes the biological and ecological aspects of pathogenesis and the role of plant diseases in plant production. Using specific examples, the student will be introduced to all major types of plant pathogens. PATH 3530 serves as a basic course for students planning to take additional courses in plant pathology and as a breadth-course for students whose primary interest lies in other areas of biology. Lectures: Monday and Wednesday, 10:10 to 11:00 a.m., Room 2401 Pl. Sci.

50. Books plant pathogens and plant diseases. Edited by JF Brown and HJ Ogle. ORDER FORM. plantpathogens and plant diseases. Contents. Part I. The agents that cause disease. http://www.australasianplantpathologysociety.org.au/Books/Books.htm

Book Reviews Conference Proceedings Books Endorsed by APPS Plant Virus Epidemiology: Challenges for the 21st Century ... Other Books 1. Plant Virus Epidemiology: Challenges for the 21st Century A special 262-page double issue of the Elsevier journal Virus Research contains papers based on material presented at the ISPP Plant Virus Epidemiology Symposium held in Almeria, Spain, April 1999. There are 6 substantial reviews and 13 other papers on a wide range of topics from Australia (1), France (2), Israel (1), Italy (1), Netherlands (1), Spain (4), Uganda (1), UK (2) and USA (6). The volume has already been distributed to regular subscribers. Additional copies can be purchased for US Dollars $38.00 through the following member of the ISPP Plant Virus Epidemiology Committee (All prices include air mail postage from UK): Dr R A C Jones Agriculture Western Australia Locked Bag No. 4 Bentley Delivery Centre Western Australia Payment to R A C Jones: Australian Dollars $76 2. Plant Virus Epidemiology : VIII Symposium 2002 The next symposium "First steps into the new millennium" will be held at

51. Real-time PCR And Its Application For Rapid Plant Disease Diagnostics Translate this page Rapid-cycle real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods may revolutionize themanner in which plant pathogens are identified and diseases are diagnosed. http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/tcjpp/k02-043.html

Real-time PCR and its application for rapid plant disease diagnostics Norman W. Schaad and Reid D. Frederick Pages 250-258 Abstract : Rapid-cycle real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods may revolutionize the manner in which plant pathogens are identified and diseases are diagnosed. As the genomics age progresses and more and more DNA sequence data become available, highly specific primers and fluorescent probe sequences can be designed to yield target amplicons to unique regions of a pathogen's genome. Portable real-time PCR instruments described here are now allowing for diagnostic assays to be run directly in the field or at remote locations other than the standard diagnostic laboratory. Rapid real-time PCR diagnosis can result in appropriate control measures and (or) eradication procedures more quickly and accurately than traditional methods of pathogen isolation. Disease losses are minimized and control costs reduced. Advantages and disadvantages of rapid real-time PCR for the detection of bacterial, fungal, and viral plant pathogens are described. Key words : DNA-based diagnostics, molecular identification, disease diagnosis, bacteria, fungi.

52. OUP USA: Plant Pathologists' Pocketbook: J. M. Waller 9. Fungi as plant pathogens, JM Waller and PF Cannon. 10. Bacteria and plantdiseases, G. Saddler. 11. Virus diseases, Revised by JM Waller. 12. http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/LifeSciences/Botany/PlantPathology

53. The BSPP - Archives - Biodiversity Symposium plant pathogens, through the diseases they cause, influence the distribution of individualsof a species, the genetic variation of that species with respect to http://www.bspp.org.uk/archives/biodiversity/

Biodiversity and Plant Pathogens and Conservation by Dr. David Ingram Participate in an Ecological Discussion on Plant Pathogen Conservation British Mycological Society Draft Policy On Conservation of Fungi Six Reasons ... Plant Pathology? Related Reading: Potato Late Blight and the Irish Potato Famine Why Europeans Drink Tea ... Chocoholics Link to the site of the th International Congress of Plant Pathology The American Phytopathological Society 3340 Pilot Knob Road St. Paul, MN 55121-2097 USA e-mail: aps@scisoc.org ICPP98 Event July 1 thru July 31, 1998 This ICPP98 event is sponsored by: The International Society of Plant Pathology The British Society for Plant Pathology The American Phytopathological Society Save Our Plant Pathogens! W hy preserve the biodiversity of plant pathogens? International Congress of Plant Pathology President David Ingram gives several reasons in his paper introduced below, including: 1) they serve a role in revealing genetic diversity in potential breeding material and provide vital screens for the development of new cultivars, 2) they are the raw material for much of the basic scientific research on life cycles and genetics that generate an understanding of pathogen variation, evolution and population dynamics, and 3) they constitute a potentially significant biotechnological resource of particular importance to the genetic engineer.

54. Emergence Of Plant Diseases (5 March, 1997) populations in contact with populations that harbor pathogens without severe (plant)populations become more vulnerable to disease through drugs http://www.agnic.org/pmp/1997/epd9703.html

55. PLP208 ECOLOGY OF PLANT PATHOGENS & EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PLANT DISEASES Concept Of Inoculum Potential In Soil And Critical Events In plant Infection. ModelingAnd Forecasting Root diseases. Control Of SoilBorne plant pathogens. http://www.plpnem.ucdavis.edu/plp/courses/PLP208/PLP208.htm

Course Goals: The primary goal is to study those interactions between higher plants, plant pathogens, and the environment which are important in the occurrence and development of plant disease. Emphasis is placed on the population dynamics and ecology of plant pathogens in the aerial and soil environments. Entry Level: The course is designed primarily for graduate students in plant pathology and related fields. Plant pathology 120 or an equivalent course is a prerequisite. Any exposure the student has had to microbiology, mycology, ecology, population dynamics, soils, and atmospheric sciences will be helpful. However, no formal background in these areas is required. Course Format: Three hours of lecture and one hour of discussion are scheduled each week. Some of the discussion is prepared and led by students. Grades are based on one mid-term exam, a final exam and one paper. The paper is written on the epidemiology of a disease of the student's choosing. The paper takes the form of a research proposal and the goal of the proposed research is to gather all the information needed to model and/or forecast epidemics at a given location.

56. F830 Plant Diseases (General) insects or other arthropods as vectors of plant pathogens, use F821and appropriate plant disease category code, F830F833; nematodes http://laurel.nal.usda.gov:8080/agnic/cc/d_f830.html

57. World Chocolate Production: The Impact Of Plant Diseases The disease is caused by a complex of species of Phytophthora (the genus namedby Anton de Bary in 1876 as “plant destroyer”) (5). These pathogens are http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/cacao/top.html

Authors' List of Related Links Image Slide Show Press Release Previous ... Progress Interested in contributing an APS net Feature? Have a comment? Please contact Jean Ristaino, APS net Feature Editor. Feature Story February 1 through February 28, 2001 Peer-Reviewed by Plant Health Progress The Impact of Plant Diseases on World Chocolate Production John H. Bowers and Bryan A. Bailey, Prakash K. Hebbar, Soumaila Sanogo, Robert D. Lumsden, Corresponding author: John H. Bowers. bowersJo@ba.ars.usda.gov Bowers, J. H., Bailey, B. A., Hebbar, P. K., Sanogo, S., Lumsden, R. D. 2001. The impact of plant diseases on world chocolate production. Online. Plant Health Progress doi:10.1094/PHP-2001-0709-01-RV. Introduction Fig. 1A. Pods of Theobroma cacao , which contain 30-40 seeds each that are harvested and processed into chocolate products. Chocolate has its origins in ancient Central America where the Maya and the Aztecs cultivated the cacao tree ( Theobroma cacao L.) (Figs. 1A to 1C) and extracted from the seeds or beans a highly prized drink (Figs. 2A,2B,3), which was called chocolatl

58. PLANT DISEASE DIAGNOSTICS Many ELISA diagnostic kits are available for use in the laboratory, however, andcan test for a wide range of plant pathogens. Examples of diseases ELISA kits http://www.nal.usda.gov/bic/Education_res/iastate.info/bio5.html

PLANT DISEASE DIAGNOSTICS Biotechnology Information Series (Bio-5) North Central Extension Publication Iowas State University - University Extension August, 1993 Plant Disease Diagnosis: Moving Out of the Lab and Into the Field ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ The first and most important step in managing a plant disease is to correctly identify it. Although some diseases can be diagnosed quickly by visual examination, others require laboratory testing for diagnosis. These laboratory procedures may take days or even weeks to complete and are, in some cases, relatively insensitive. Delays are frustrating when a quick diagnosis is needed so that appropriate disease control measures may be taken to prevent plant injury, especially when high value cash crops, turf grass, or ornamentals are at stake. Fortunately, as the result of advances in biotechnology, new products and techniques are becoming available that will complement or replace time-consuming laboratory procedures. Many products already are available for use, while others are still in developmental stages. Some procedures require laboratory equipment and training, while other procedures can be performed on site by a person with no specialized training. ELISA Diagnostic Kits A number of disease detection kits have been developed for use at the site where a disease is suspected. These kits, which in most cases do not require laboratory equipment, are especially useful to growers. Some tests only take five minutes to perform.

59. DNA Profiling: Guarding Against A Plant Disease Epidemic Ward recently joined O Donnell s laboratory to gain insights on how thescab pathogens developed their ability to cause plant disease. http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/aug00/dna0800.htm

Advanced Browse Help About Us ... Careers Printer Friendly Email this page News Magazine  Subscriptions Editorial Staff ... News > DNA Profiling: Guarding Against a Plant Disease Epidemic A healthy wheat head (left) stands in contrast to one inoculated with Fusarium graminearum showing severe symptoms of Fusarium head blight disease (right). Curiosity compels some people to research their family tree. But to ARS scientists like microbiologist Kerry O'Donnell and molecular geneticist Corby Kistler, reconstructing the genealogy of plant pathogenic fungi goes beyond curiosity. O'Donnell, at Peoria, Illinois, and Kistler, at St. Paul, Minnesota, along with colleagues at North Dakota State University (NDSU), Fargo, are doing research that may help keep grains from becoming contaminated with toxins that threaten food safety and plant health. Kistler and O'Donnell are among scientists researching toxin-producing Fusarium fungi. These fungi are notorious for causing a disease called scab, or Fusarium head blight, in grains such as wheat and barley, as well as ear and stalk rot of corn. One of their goals is to develop technology for identifying which species cause disease. They also hope to determine each species' range of hosts, geographic distribution, and potential for producing mycotoxins. This information is urgently needed by plant breeders and disease control specialists worldwide to develop effective control measures to minimize the threat of scab. Although the pathogens in the

60. Pathogens And Antagonists Cornell Univ Biological Control in North America; Weeden, Shelton, Hoffmann.pathogens and Antagonists of plant Disease and PostHarvest Decay. pathogens. http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/pathogens/pathintro.html

Pathogens and Antagonists of Plant Disease and Post-Harvest Decay Pathogens Pathogens and Antagonists Table of Contents Insects and mites, like plants, humans, and other animals, can be infected by disease-causing organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Under some conditions, such as high humidity or high pest abundance, these naturally occurring organisms may multiply to cause disease outbreaks or epizootics that can decimate an insect population. Diseases can be important natural controls of some insect pests. Some pathogens have been mass produced and are available in commercial formulations for use in standard spray equipment. These products are frequently referred to as microbial insecticides, biorational, or bio-insecticides. Some of these microbial insecticides are still experimental, others have been available for many years. Formulations of the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt, for example, are widely used by gardeners and commercial growers. Most insect pathogens are relatively specific to certain groups of insects and certain life stages. The microbial products do not directly affect beneficial insects and none are toxic to wildlife or humans. Specificity, ironically, can be a disadvantage to the commercialization of these products because their small market may limit profitability.

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