81. Culture Of India, Culture In India, Culture Tourism India, Culture Holidays Indi indian Holiday offers culture of india, culture Tourism in india, culture Holidays india, culture Tours of india, and culture holiday packages for india. http://www.indianholiday.com/travel-to-india/culture-of-india.html

Indian Holiday offers Culture of India, Culture Tourism in India, Culture Holidays India, Culture Tours of India, and Culture holiday packages for India Goa Kerala Rajasthan Agra ... Culture of India... Culture of India Ever wondered at the diversity in Culture of India? The enticing unity represented by the people of the country who display a wide range of religions, culture, customs and languages. The rich and varied heritage happens to be one of the many sources of pride of the nation. The mysterious ways of the people, their lifestyles and the inseparable culture of India cannot be done solved in words but can surely be enjoyed with experience. In case you are planning for a holiday, the idea to explore the heritage of culture in India will be an excellent option. The diversity of the land is immense to make us realize the number of years that have gone into beautifying each aspect of culture. The Culture holidays in India are an effort to pick up the best possible flavors of the land and offer them to the tourists in a package. The land of the kings, Rajasthan, promises to be an experience of a lifetime with its wealth of culture and traditions.

82. India Travel Packages,India Travel Package,Holiday Travel Packages In India,Indi Tours for wildlife, culture, and ayurveda. Also offers tailormade packages, hotel reservations, domestic and international airlines booking. http://www.transindiatravels.com/

Home Tour Packages Hotel Booking Services ... E-mail Select your city ::Hotels in India:: Hotels in Delhi Hotels in Agra Hotels in Jaipur Hotels in Udaipur Hotels in Mumbai Hotels in Goa Hotels in Cochin Hotels in Kumarakom A few Words... Friends, I call you so because after travelling in India with us, you will leave as our friends. We are leading travel agents in India from last 20 years, handling incoming tourists from GERMANY, AUSTRIA, USA, UK, AND OTHER COUNTRIES. WE PROVIDE THE FOLLOWING SERVICES FOR A MEMORABLE TOUR OF INDIA TRAVEL PACKAGES IN INDIA Golden Triangle Explore Delhi, Jaipur, Agra and view their timeless monuments. Spice Tours of Kerala Visit the places that will leave you speechless with their lush green fields. Rajasthan Tours A comprehensive Rajasthan tour that includes the most famous tourist attractions... North India Pilgrimage Tours Visit the holy places located in Delhi, Varanasi, Puri and other places in North India. Goa Beach Holidays Sun, sand and surfing...you will have a time of your life here.

83. India WebQuest Designed by Roshni india. Joan Jonswald and Mary Smith, Cornelia Elementary ESL Teachers. They are busy learning English and all about American culture. http://www.edina.k12.mn.us/cornelia/teach/webquests/india/india.htm

My Two Homes A WebQuest for Elementary Students A Study of World Cultures: India Designed by Roshni - India Joan Jonswald and Mary Smith , Cornelia Elementary ESL Teachers Sherron Gaughan , Cornelia Elementary Media Specialist Introduction Task Process Evaluation ... Credits Introduction We have many students in our school that have moved to the United States from other countries. They are busy learning English and all about American culture. Wouldn't it be fun to learn about their native country and culture? You should be able to find many interesting similarities and differences. Your main mission is to promote respect and understanding of other cultures. Your job is to find information and pictures to use in a presentation describing this country and it's culture. What makes this webquest special is that it was created with the help of our ESL students. In this webquest you will investigate their native country. The Task You and your partner will choose a role. Using the Internet, you will investigate a specific subject area of the country and it's culture. You and your partner will collect notes and pictures that will be used to create a Hyperstudio or Power Point presentation.

84. NM's Creative Impulse..India Collection of links; history, geography, culture and society of india. http://history.evansville.net/india.html

NM's Creative Impulse The Development of Western Civilization World History India Contents Introduction History People Places ... Search or look it up in the Encyclopedia Britannica Contact Information Introduction From the earliest settlements along the Indus River, the Dravidians and later the Aryans spread their settlements deep into the sub-continent. Protected by geographic barriers, the valley inhabitants had limited contact with the outside world. Farmers cultivated cotton and processed it into cloth which became a valuable trade commodity. Their cities were well planned with shops, granaries, extensive sewer systems and protective walls. Two major religions, Buddhism and Hinduism, developed in India and spread throughout Asia. Art served religion well in India. The artists of the area cut unique Buddhist Temples from rocky cliffs with facades and interiors intricately carved to imitate the wooden constructions of the period. From the earliest simple structures to the ornate and imposing later ones, the Hindu Temples must be appreciated as sculpture as well as architecture. Their paintings, particularly from the Gupta dynasty, are classed as some of the finest in history. Back to Top Hist ory People Akbar image and one nice page bio Asoka - one page bio His Edicts and His Times Aurangzeb: The Intolerant image and one nice page bio The Aryans from Richard Hooker's World Cultures Class at Washington State University - read about the invasion, conquest and the establishment of the Vedic Civilization.

85. The Horizons - Art, Culture And Lifestyles From India Information on art, culture and lifestyles from india, with a panel of select indian dancers, musicians and a collection of handicrafts and artefacts. http://www.thehorizons.com/

elcome to The Horizons - where you can explore the exciting and rich world of Indian art and culture. Experience traditions that have remained unchanged over the centuries. Get acquainted with the modern. And take back a slice of India you won't find anywhere else! Organising a special occasion? Do something different and treat your audience to an Indian experience. Horizons offers you a panel of extremely talented classical dancers - each an accomplished master in their chosen field. Details here ndia. Perhaps the only country in the world that exists in several centuries at once. Where ancient rituals thrive alongside spectacular technological advances. A wonderful tapestry of cultures, languages, and religions. ashioned by invaders and settlers down the ages, India has absorbed, adopted, and adapted outside cultures and influences. Merging each with the other to form a unique individuality. And a rich, varied heritage. The Horizons Art Gallery brings you works of modern Indian artists. Although contemporary in style, in most of the paintings there is a dynamic synthesis between a deep rooted Indian tradition and modern materials and techniques. Details here Swirling silks hand embriodered with designs from a bygone era... bronze icons... papier mache knick-knacks... All this and much more is available at the Craft Basket where a great shopping experience awaits you.

86. Khasi A ethnographic report on a group that lives in northeastern india in the District of the United Khasi and Jaintia Hills. http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/EthnoAtlas/Hmar/Cult_dir/Culture.7852

Society-KHASI The Khasi live in northeastern India in the District of the United Khasi and Jaintia Hills, under the control of the Assam State Government. The Khasi proper live in the upland center of the District, while the closely related Jaintia inhabit the southeastern part of that region, and the affiliated Lynngam live on the western border of the Khasi Hills, near the Garo Hills. The geography of the different areas in which these peoples live varies greatly. It is one of the factors that has contributed to differences in culture, dialect, economy, social life, and political organization among these groups, even though they share the same language and social structure. The United Khasi-Jaintia Hills District covers 5,554 square miles of hilly tableland. It is bounded on the south by the Cachar Hills and East Pakistan, on the east by the United Mikir and North Cachar Hills Districts, on the north by the plains of the Kamrup and Nowgong Districts, and on the west by the Garo Hills. The ecology varies, within short distances, from jungle to scrub or grassland. The Khasi speak a Mon-Khmer language of the Austro-Asiatic family. Khasi, Jaintia, and Lynngam are the three major dialects spoken, with variations occurring in each village. The Khasi language is giving way to Assamese on the fringes of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills area. In 1842, writing was introduced by the Methodist missionaries, who applied the Roman alphabet to the Cherrapunji dialect of Khasi. According to the 1951 census of India, the total Khasi population in the Khasi-Jaintia Hills District was 363,599 (Nkane 1967: 95). Khasi villages are situated below hill summits to avoid strong winds. In every village, the following places can be found: cremation grounds, tree groves, a market place, the home of the village priest, and the home of the chief, if he lives in that village. Today, Christian churches, government and social welfare buildings, and schools are also part of the village. In the past, several villages grouped together to form one large village for defense. Now, the once non-cohesive component villages have been integrated through the schools and public services. The Khasi have a market economy based on agriculture. Most Khasi not only produce goods but also participate in trade as sellers, middlemen, etc. On the Shillong Plateau, the major field crops are potatoes, maize, millet, and dry rice. The potato was introduced to this area in 1830 by David Scott. Paddy rice is found in parts of Jaintia. The upland Khasi tend house gardens of pumpkins, eggplant, sweet potatoes, etc. Hunting with bow and arrow is only for sport, and fishing for subsistence is common only in the southern foothills. In Khasi villages, women operate household shops. Markets are held in different places according to the eight-day week, but the Shillong market, which attracts Khasi from all over the hill area, is open daily. The use of currency has replaced the barter system. Markets fulfill social as well as economic functions, by supplying recreation in the form of archery contests, opportunities for courtship, disseminating information, etc. There are few industrial arts, but those that exist are the specialty of certain villages (e.g., the forging of knives and swords in the villages of the upland Khasi). The production of ready-made garments has been made possible by the introduction of the sewing machine. Boiled rice and dried fish are the staple foods of the Khasi; beef, pork, and chicken are beyond the means of most people. The use of betel nut, tobacco, and rice whisky as stimulants is common. In Khasi society, descent is matrilineal; a person is a member of his or her own matrilineage from birth. The maximal matrilineage is the sib, and the minimal matrilineage is the local descent group, or iing. In the past, this group spanned six generations, but today this has been reduced to four. An iing divides after it grows to more than four generations in a single village, and new houses are located some distance from the old iing. The term iing also indicates an extended family, a nuclear family, or a house. The nuclear family is the basic domestic unit, but this unit may temporarily include other relatives. Neolocal residence is common today; traditionally, however, residence was either matrilocal, uxorilocal, or, occasionally, virilocal. Elopement frequently occurs among the Christians and non-Christians, but some Khasi still prefer to be married according to the traditional ceremony. Other characteristics of Khasi marriage include: monogamy, sib exogamy, and the lack of a bride-price or dowry. Divorce must be by mutual consent. Traditionally, the youngest daughter inherited all of her mother's property; this practice is now changing to include older daughters and also sons. The village is the basic unit of political organization. An assembly of adult males from the village, and the headman elected by this assembly, govern the village. The 25 Khasi chiefdoms, or states, probably arose from the voluntary association of villages. Because villages readily transfer their allegiance from one chief to another, chiefdoms are not territorial entities. Chiefs have executive and judicial functions, but before they can act, they must be granted approval by an executive council. Market tolls, fines, and licenses to distill rice whisky provide revenue for the chief. Lineages are classed as either noble, commoner, or servant. The majority of the people are commoners. A few servant lineages remain, and the people belonging to these lineages must perform certain duties in the chief's household. The positions of state and village priest and the chief's councilor and elector can be filled only by members of the noble lineages. Of all the deities in the Khasi pantheon, the unnamed God and Goddess are the most important. The God is characterized as powerful and merciful, yet also passive; the Goddess is closer to the individual. Divination by reading eggshells and entrails is practiced. Sacrifice is performed to explain and remedy misfortune. The Khasi also believe in demons, omens in nature and in dreams, and mystic numbers and colors. Ceremonies addressed to the ancestors take place during life crises, marriage, divorce, etc. Many chiefdoms also have a state religion, in which the Pombland ceremony takes place over a year to secure the blessing of the ancestors for the entire chiefdom. Many foreign missionaries have been active among the Khasi, with great success. The Calvinistic Methodist missionaries were the first to establish themselves among the Khasi in 1832; Unitarians, Seventh Day Adventists, Catholics, and others followed. A good introduction to the Khasi may be found in McCormack (1964). Gurdon (1907) provides historical depth. Culture summary by Heather M. Fellows Gurdon, Philip Richard Thornhagh. The Khasis. With an introduction by Sir Charles Lyall. London, D. Nutt, 1907. 27, 227 p. illus. McCormack, Anna P. Khasis. In Frank M. LeBar, Gerald C. Hickey, and John K. Musgrave, eds. Ethnic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia. New Haven, Human Relations Area Files Press, 1964: 105-112. Nakane, Chie. Garo and Khasi: a comparative study in matrilineal systems. Paris, Mouton, 1967. 187 p. illus., maps. 7852

87. Indian Culture Site containing information about Indian culture such as Hindu Marriage, National Song, and Indian Flag. http://members.tripod.com/JayHind/India.html

88. Untitled Document Research interests in poetic discourse and South india Tribal culture. Munich University, Germany.› http://ulrich.demmer.bei.t-online.de

De pt. of Anthropology Topics Rhetoric and Poetics of Oral Discourse Performance Studies Concepts of Sociality/Community Anthropology of (New) Media Postcolonial Anthropology: State and Local Modernities in India Regional Specialization Gatherer/Hunter Societies (transregional) Jenu Kurumba Death Ritual Dialogues with the Shaman (embodied Dead) Dialogues "in the Field" Jenu Kurumba Puja Koya Women in Orissa (Middle India) @-Mail

89. Website Of Embassy Of India, Copenhagen Contains a mini portal on indian economy, tourism, science and technology, education, culture, arts, government, business, news, indiaDenmark relations and links to Denmark. http://www.indian-embassy.dk/

Home About us Visa Services Consular Services ... Site Map Welcome to the Website of Embassy of India, Copenhagen! The Embassy is located at Vangehusvej 15, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, close to the Svanemollen station. The Embassy is open to business from Monday through Friday. The business hours of the Embassy are: Chancery 0900 to 1730 hrs; 0930 to 1200 hrs and Commercial Section 0900 to 1730 hrs. The Embassy will however remain closed for business on some days which may not be same as local holidays. Embassy of India, Denmark Common Minimum Programme of the New Government (PDF) Biodata of Dr Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister Newsletter MEA Newswire India Perspective ... Today's weather in Copenhagen Information given in other Indian or non-Indian internet sites linked to this website does not construe an endorsement of views contained therein by this Embassy or the Government of India. Site designed by Dr Ausaf Sayeed, IFS Updated on 07 juni, 2004

90. Ancient India's Contribution To Science And Technology Yes read more about this in the book india s Contribution to World culture by Sudheer Birodkar. Text of the Book india s Contribution to World culture . http://india.coolatlanta.com/GreatPages/sudheer/

You are watching India.CoolAtlanta.com -> Culture -> Sudheer Swagatam (Welcome in Sanskrit) Ancient India's Contribution to Our World's Material (Temporal) Culture This Site is dedicated to the Unity and Integrity of Humankind Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (The World is one family - an ancient Vedic term) New Sections Added by Sudheer Birodkar Dear Visitor, Here goes a Sloka (couplet) from the Atharva Veda (one of the 4 Vedas - treatises on knowledge from ancient India) which embodies the true spirit of humanness expressed, not today, but four thousand years ago. We are the birds of the same nest, We may wear different skins, We may speak different languages, We may believe in different religions, We may belong to different cultures, Yet we share the same home - OUR EARTH. Born on the same planet Covered by the same skies Gazing at the same stars Breathing the same air We must learn to happily progress together Or miserably perish together, For man can live individually, But can survive only collectively It is this spirit of humanness that has been the undercurrent of existence in a part of the world known by many names like Aryavarta, Jambudwipa, Bharatvarsha, Hindustan or India. This spirit has also prevailed in many other parts of the world where the right thinking of humankind has prevailed. Shiva-Nataraja - the Indian God of Dance.

91. Untitled Document History of ancient india. Includes stories and information about Hindu culture. http://tlc.ousd.k12.ca.us/library/india/index.html

92. ANCIENT INDIA'S CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY You are watching india.CoolAtlanta.com culture - Sudheer. Book on india s Contribution to the World s culture. . http://india.coolatlanta.com/GreatPages/sudheer/book.html

You are watching India.CoolAtlanta.com -> Culture -> Sudheer Book on India's Contribution to the World's Culture "If there is one place on the face of this Earth where all the dreams of living men have found a home from the very earliest days when Man began the dream of existence, it is India." - Romain Rolland - French Philosopher 1886-1944 Continuity and Change: Caprisoned Elephants lumber along the Raj Path in New Delhi as a part of India's Republic Day parade. This book aims at disproving the generally held belief that in ancient times India had only been a land of spiritual development with modest achievements as far as material culture goes. In the opinion of many Westerners as well as some educated Indians, ancient India was only a land of sages, seers. hermits and philosophers or Sadhus, Sanyasis, Rishis and Gurus as they are called. But though spiritual philosophies did flower in India, they were not the only contribution of India to human civilization. Table of Contents Home You are currently viewing the Introduction Chapter 1: Production Technology and Mechanical Engineering Chapter 2 Shipbuilding and Navigation Chapter 3 Architecture and Civil Engineering Chapter 4 Mathematics Chapter 5 Astronomy Chapter 6 Physics and Chemistry Chapter 7 Medical Science Chapter 8 Fine Arts Chapter 9 Sports and Games Chapter 10 Philosophy Chapter 11 Summing Up Glossary Sanskrit-English Glossary Next Book A Search for Our Present in History The impression that India is only a land of spiritual development

93. Webshopindia - Galerie : Art Et Artistes à La Decouverte De L Inde La galerie d'art d©di©e aux travaux d'artistes fran§ais travaillant sur l'inde ou la culture indienne. http://www.webshopindia.fr/galerie/

Marc Ingrand voyage en Inde ... Courtault pour exposer (gratuitement) sur La Galerie de Webshopindia, écrivez nous Cachemire WEBSHOPINDIA le magazine découverte de l'Inde Curiosités

94. About India - Main Page Guide to the country, with information on its culture, art, business, news, travel and history. http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/india/about_india.htm

Updated Countries / Regions Home Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Malaysia Mongolia Myanmer N.Korea Philippines Singapore S.Korea Taiwan Thailand Vietnam Bangkok Beijing Hong Kong Seoul Shanghai Tibet Tokyo Areas of Interest People Education Economy Politics ... Wildlife Culture/Tradition Literature Painting Art Sculpture ... Celebrations Map of India Click for Large View Travel Guide Weather Links to Areas of Interest Art Entertainment Literature, Painting, Crafts. Music, ... TV. Business Government Stock, News, Trade. Embassies, ... Organizations. Culinary Items Education Food, Recipes. Educational, Libraries. Culture / Society News Religion, Traditions. Modern Life. Newspapers, ... on Hotels, Travel Agents, Transportations (Airlines)... Viewer's Corner Publish your story on AsianInfo.org -

95. East-West Center: News Release: INDIA'S CULTURE & CUISINE TO BE FEATURED AT EWC The EastWest Center india S culture CUISINE TO BE FEATURED AT EWC ANNUAL DINNER. SITE SEARCH. http://www.eastwestcenter.org/events-pr-detail.asp?press_ID=164

96. ThinkQuest : Library : India - The Great Ocean Of Heritage Gives a brief description of the country, along with information on its history, religion, people, culture, environment, and architecture. http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/

Index Cultures India - the Great Ocean of Heritage Our entry is on our country that is INDIA. We have given a brief description of our country which will be of great help to those who want to know about India in a short and concise manner. It will be a starting point for all those who wish to tour India. About our site:It contains information on the following topics National information and Statistics History Religion People and Culture Language Music Way of life Maps Terrain Population density Precipitetion And it also has a SPECIAL ATTRACTION WHICH IS - A COLOURFUL MAP THIS WILL TAKE THE VISITOS THROUGH A PICTERSQUE JOURNEY OF INDIA. Visit Site 1999 ThinkQuest Internet Challenge Languages English Students Lohitaksha NATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL, Bangalore, India Vignesh NATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL, Bangalore, India Vikas NATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL, Bangalore, India

97. British Council Library India :: Home Britain's international network for education, science, technology, culture, and development services. Branches located in major cities. http://library.britishcouncil.org.in/

IF YOU ARE AN EXISTING MEMBER, CLICK HERE TO LOGIN. The largest of British Council's worldwide operation, the British Council Library network in India is spread across eleven cities. Each year we respond to 200,000 enquiries and lend 2.4 million books, serving the needs of 15,000 visitors every day, with over 40,000 new books adding to our stock every year. Modelled on the pattern of British public libraries, our libraries have a modern ambience, backed by efficient service and facilities, and supplemented by courteous and competent staff. Apart from providing the best of reading materials published in the UK, we also provide access to information products online and a wide range of services set to the highest professional standards. Visit any of our eleven libraries for a world of books and information Ahmedabad Bangalore Bhopal ... If you are a student Access our extensive range of academic books to keep you ahead of others... Do you love books?

98. India / India :: Culture & Tourism Links : Kulturális és Idegenforgalmi Linkek International catalogue of culture and tourism. Internationaler kultureller und touristischer Katalog. Nemzetközi kulturális és idegenforgalmi katalógus. http://katalogus.kulturinfo.hu/in.html

ország Afganisztán Albánia Algéria Amerikai Szamoa Andorra Angola Anguilla Antigua és Barbuda Argentína Aruba Ausztria Ausztrália Azerbajdzsán Bahamák Bahrain Banglades Barbados Belgium Belize Benin Bermuda Bhután Bissau-Guinea Bolívia Bosznia és Hercegovina Botswana Brazília Brunei Darussalam Bulgária Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cape Verde Central African Republic Ciprus Chile Comoros Cook Szigetek Costa Rica Csehország Csád Dánia Dél-Korea Dél-Afrika Dominika Dominikai Köztársaság Dzsibuti Ecuador Egyenlítõi Guinea Egyesült Arab Emírségek Egyiptom El Salvador Elefántcsontpart Eritrea Észak-Korea Észtország Etiópia Falkland Szigetek Faroe Szigetek Fehér-Oroszország Fidzsi Finnország Francia Guiana Franciaország Fülöp-szigetek Gabon Gambia Ghana Gibraltár Görögország Grenada Grönland Grúzia Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala Guinea Guyana Haiti Holland Antillák Hollandia Honduras Hong Kong Horvátország India Indonézia Irak Irán Írország Izland Izrael Jamaika Japán Jemen Jordánia Jugoszlávia Kajmán Szigetek Kambodzsa Kamerun Kanada Katar Kazahsztán Kenya Kína Kirgizisztán Kiribati Kolombia Kongó Kuba Kuvait Laosz Lengyelország Lesotho Lettország Libanon Libéria Líbia Liechtenstein Litvánia Luxemburg Macau Macedonia Madagaszkár Malawi Maldív Szigetek Mali Malájföld Málta Marokkó Marshall Szigetek Mauritania Mauritius Mexikó Micronesia Moldova Monaco Mongólia Mozambik Nagy-Britannia Namíbia Nauru Németország Nepál Nicaragua Niger Nigéria Norvégia Nyugat-Szamoa Olaszország Oman Oroszország Örményország Pakisztán Palau Panama Pápua Új-Guinea Paraguay Peru Portugália Románia Ruanda Saint Kitts és Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent, Grenadines

99. Santal An ethnography of one of the largest ethnic groups in india. http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/EthnoAtlas/Hmar/Cult_dir/Culture.7866

Society-SANTAL The Santals are one of the largest ethnic groups in India. They had a population of about 2,500,000 according to the census of 1931, and their estimated population around 1960 was placed at over 3,000,000 (cf. Culshaw 1949: 1; Orans 1965: xi). They occupy primarily the Chotanagpur Plateau, with their settlements distributed over an area of 350 miles, from the Ganges to the Baitarani, between long. 86 degrees-88 degrees E and lat. 22 degrees-26 degrees N. Politically, this region extends through the states of Bihar, West Bengal, and northern Orissa. Within each of these states, the Santal population is concentrated as follows: Bihardistricts of Santal Parganas, Manbhum, Singhbhum, Bhagalpur, Hazaribagh, and Monghyr; West Bengaldistricts of Bankura, Birbhum, and Midnapore; Orissadistricts of Mayurbhanj and Balasore. The Santal Parganas district is considered to be the heart of the Santal area. Beyond this region, the Santals have spread widely in India as agricultural and industrial laborers. The Santals are a non-Hingu peoplein fact, they make a clear distinction based on race between themselves and Hindus and are classified as a "Pre-Dravidian" tribe. Their language, Santali, belongs to the Munda (or Mundari) branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. There are dialectical variations in Santali, but Orans (1965: 6) claims that there is almost complete mutual intelligibility throughout the population. Moreover, this mutual intelligibility is said to be a basis of their social cohesion, which has been maintained despite the fact that the Santals as a whole have never been politically unified. The main dialectical distinction is between Northern Santali, which is spoken by the great majority of Santals, and Southern Santali. The latter is spoken in the southern part of Bihar and in Orissa, while Northern Santali is spoken in most of Bihar and in West Benhal. Prior to the nineteenth century, the basic Santal subsistence pattern was hunting, but with an ever-increasing population and the rapidly decreasing game supply, the Santals have since turned to agriculture. Today, the Santals are predominantly cereal agriculturists, growing rice as their chief crop, and further supplementing this with millet, sorghum, maize, and some vegetable crops. Cotton is grown for textile use. Santal agricultural methods are primarily of the slash-and-burn variety, with little knowledge or application of crop rotation, irrigation, or fertilizers. Hunting, fishing, and gathering are of little economic importance today, although the annual "dehiri" hunt is an event enjoyed by most of the male population. Cattle are raised to some extent, as well as sheep, goats, pigs, oxen, buffaloes, cows, cats, and dogs. These animals are used as supplementary sources of protein in the diet, as well as for other purposes (e.g., rodent control). The Santals trade extensively with neighboring Hindu peoples for the bulk of their everyday goods except for food stuffs and a few forest products. Santal social organization is characterized by a lack of the caste cleavages so prominent in Hindu society, a patrilineal kinship system, and a relatively low level of political integration. The entire society seems to be divided into 9 exogamous but noncorporate patrilineal sibs. (By tradition there should be 12 sibs, but Orans says that actually there appear to be only 9). These sibs are divided into subsibs, which in turn are subdivided into local patrilineal lineagesthe largest corporate kin groups. The basic family unit is the extended patrilocal family. Each village is usually composed of a number of lineages. The village is evidently the key political unit, but the largest formally organized territorial unit is the pargana, a loose confederation of approximately a dozen villages bound together to settle certain judicial questions and headed by an official called a parganath. Culshaw (1949) discusses the pargana, and this seems to be the same unit which Biswas calls a bungalow, describing it as an administrative grouping of villages headed by a parganait (1956). Traditionally, Santal religion was characterized by a belief in a pantheon of supernatural beings represented at the top by the supreme god Thakur (Chando, Chando Bonga, Sing Bongo, or Kando) and including six other major gods and a host of nature and ancestral spirits. Although the Santals had no idols or temples, the Sacred Grove or Spring represented to them the place of residence of the supernatural powers, and it was there that prayers and sacrifices were made, usually by a priest, to avert the ill will of the gods and to bring upon themselves, their crops, and their animals the blessings of the supernaturals. In addition, each family had two gods of its own, the orakbonga (household god) and the abgebonga (secret god), whose name was never divulged to anyone except the eldest son in the family. The bongas or spirits were generally friendly toward man, but at times could inflict misery and trouble. Hinduism has had only nominal influence on Santal religious practices as has Christianity, despite the fact that Christian missionaries have been functioning among the Santals since 1862. Biswas indicates that in addition to being a minority group, the Christian converts were also faced with the problem of loss of ethnic identity (Biswas, 1956: 217-218). Although magic and witchcraft have also figured prominently in Santal religious practices, Mukherjea believes that these concepts were probably borrowed from the Hindus (Mukherjea 1962: 308-309). The Santals strongly believed in the existence of witches in the society, who, motivated by envy and operating through the medium of the "evil eye" or other magical practices, visited sickness, death, and other calamities upon members of the village community. By means of divinatory practices exercised through the offices of the witch-finder and the Ojha (a kind of exorcist), the causative agents of the disease were determined and ritually removed, and the identity of the witch revealed. Once the name of the witch was known, that person was often beaten, fined, driven from the community, and not infrequently killed. Witches in Santal society were inevitably female, while the Ojha and the witch-finders were male. Summaries of Santal culture may be found in any of the sources cited below. Culture summary by Robert O. Lagace and John M. Beierle Biswas, P. C. Santals of the Santal Parganas. Delhi, Bharatiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh, 1956. 12, 230, p. illus., map. Culshaw, W. J. Tribal heritage: a study of the Santals. London, Lutterworth Press, 1949. 12, 222 p. illus., map. Orans, Martin. The Santal; a tribe in search of a great tradition. Detroit, Wayne State University Press, 1965. 14, 154 p. tables. Mukherjea, Charulal. The Santals. Rev. 2d ed. Calcutta, A. Mukherjee, 1962. 16, 459 p. illus., tables. 7866

100. OUP USA: India's Culture: B. P. Singh add to cart. india s culture. The State, the Arts and Beyond. About the Author(s). BP Singh, culture Secretary, Government of india. http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/India/?ci=0195641477&

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