1. The World Wide Web Virtual Library: Indigenous Studies CWIS George Manuel Librar indigenous Resources for africa. indigenous Resources for Asia struggles waged by indigenous peoples seek to achieve the Amazigh World Congress. Tamazight berber Culture and Identity http://www.cwis.org/wwwvl/indig-vl.html

The WWW Virtual Library Alphabetical Category Subtree Library of Congress The World Wide Web Virtual Library: INDIGENOUS STUDIES The Center For World Indigenous Studies (CWIS) and the Chief George Manuel Library are pleased to support and contribute to the development and maintenance of the World Wide Web Virtual Library The Indigenous Studies Virtual Library provides links to: General Indigenous Studies Resources I ndigenous Resources for Africa Indigenous Resources for Asia and the Middle East Indigenous Resources for Indigenous Resources for Europe Indigenous Resources for North America Indigenous Resources for the Pacific Other Useful Resources Other World Wide Web Virtual Library Sites If you wish to register a resource with the Indigenous Studies WWW Virtual Library, please use our Site Submission Form . For other inquiries, please e-mail the Chief George Manuel Library Librarian This site is maintained in conjunction with the Australian National University's Aboriginal Studies WWW Virtual Library Circumpolar WWW Virtual Library containing links to Circumpolar Indigenous resources.

2. Africa Indigenous People Baule africa, african Anthropology General Resources. By peoples. Babanki Baga Bali Bamana Bamileke Bamum Bangubangu Bangwa Baule Beembe Bembe berber Bidyogo Bobo http://www.archaeolink.com/africa_indigenous_people_baule.htm

Baule Home Africa, African Anthropology General Resources By peoples Akan Akuapem Akye Anyi ... Zulu ArtWorld AFRICA - Baule "One of the Akan group sharing similar language and, in general, matrilineal inheritance. They broke away from the Asante of Ghana in the 18th century, bringing with them craftsmanship in gold and gold leaf decoration." - From University of Durham - http://artworld.uea.ac.uk/teaching_modules/africa/cultural_groups_by_country/baule/welcome.html Baule People "The Baule belong to the Akan peoples who inhabit Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. Three hundred years ago the Baule people migrated westward from Ghana when the Asante rose to power. The tale of how they broke away from the Asante has been preserved in their oral traditions." You will find material related to history, culture, religion, political structure, art and more. - From University of Iowa - http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Baule.html

3. Mythinglinks/AFRICA/Egypt & The Sahara: The Sahara Annotated illustrated links to Saharan mythology, beliefs, lore, art, and archaeology. ancestors of contemporary berber (Amazigh, or Free People, is their name for themselves) and Tuareg peoples. very brief sites on North africa's indigenous berbers are taken from the http://www.mythinglinks.org/afr~sahara.html

MYTHING LINKS Kathleen Jenks, Ph.D. GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS THE SAHARA Berber Woman (From the "Libyana" site: see below) http://www.myrine.at/Amazons/libya.html Since Robert Graves and others argue that Medusa and her Gorgon sisters originated in Libya (Neith, one of the earliest Egyptian goddesses, also seems to have come from Libya in ancient times, Libyans and the Delta peoples of Egypt seem to have mingled freely), it isn't surprising that Greece's Amazon mythology might draw from northern Africa as well as Turkey. This engrossing site is on African Amazons, the probable ancestors of contemporary Berber ( Amazigh, or Free People, is their name for themselves) and Tuareg peoples. The site is a little difficult to navigate so just click on all hypertext available (including "cap" on the opening page). There's a page full of Amazons as they were portrayed in ancient Greek art; there's another on Tin Hinan, an ancient Tuareg queen so revered that the gold in her tomb was never looted; there's a page on the Berbers, another on the Tuareg, another on ancient language and art from the Sahara. A trial membership to this group is offered with it you get free downloads of ancient art as well as translated texts concerning the Amazons. http://www.arab.net/libya/culture/la_berbers.html

4. Indigenous Peoples Under The Rule Of Islam, Part VI indigenous peoples Under the Rule of Islam, Part VI tip of north West africa, fell into decay and began Persian, Copt, berber and others of nonArab peoples, and from http://www.atour.com/religion/docs/20011018b.html

Document loading Religious Organizations Network Indigenous Peoples Under the Rule of Islam, Part VI by Frederick P. Isaac Posted: Thursday, October 18, 2001 at 05:15 PM CT Contents Part VI – THE MACHINATIONS OF GENOCIDE Turkish Terror Struggle and Diligence Power Struggle Tailored System of Government ... Dashed Hopes Part VI – THE MACHINATIONS OF GENOCIDE Turkish Terror Ottoman Turkey called “ the sick man of Europe ” in the early 20th century crumbled on itself out of barbarism and bankruptcy. The vast Ottoman Empire, stretching from the Balkans, through the Middle East, to the tip of north West Africa, fell into decay and began to dissolve in 1908 because it resisted democratic change and social reforms. Its economy was largely rural, primitive and highly regional. Being descendants of the Mongols, Turkish rule was autocratic, oppressive and cruel to the extreme, especially against the Armenians, Assyrians, Jews and other non-Islamic indigenous ‘millet’ inhabitants. Turkey lacked sealed roads, railway lines and adequate radio communications and telegraph system. Turkey’s social Tanzimat reforms were no more than a farcical ploy to win European diplomatic and military support in its Crimean War of 1853-1856 against Russia. Turkey’s Islamic Shari’a law and ruling system of the Abode of Peace and the Abode or War remained intact until its fall and collapse of the Ottoman Empire and re-establishment of Modern Turkey by Kemal Ataturk after World War One.

5. Berbers in North africa, Tunisia, being berber is synonymous with being an illiterate peasant dressed in traditional garments. As with other indigenous peoples in the http://lexicorient.com/e.o/berbers.htm

Click to open Encyclopaedia of the Orient on its front page Berbers People living in North Africa , from Morocco 's west coast to the oasis Siwa in Egypt , from Tunisia 's north tip to the oases in mid- Sahara Berbers are making up a clear majority of the population of North Africa in terms of race and in terms of identity, a considerable minority. The difference between race and identity here is central to understand what being Berber is all about. The influx of Arabs to North Africa, has been far too small up through history to, defend the large numbers of people now claiming to be Arabs. And the influx of other peoples to North Africa has not been of any size since the Vandals in the 5th century. In terms of race, Berbers represent 80% of the population in Morocco and Algeria, more than 60% in Tunisia and Libya and 2% in Egypt, making up more than 50 million people. In addition there are about 4 million Berbers living in Europe, primarily in France. But as the Arabization has swept away the indigenous language from many regions, as well as the Berber identity, many people with Berber forefathers, are now claiming to be Arabs. In terms of identity Berbers represent 40% of all Moroccans, 30% of all Algerians, 5% of all Tunisians, and 10% of all Libyans and 0,5% of all Egyptians, making up more than 20 million people. An estimated half of the ethnic Berbers living in Europe regard themselves as Berbers, making up 2 million. Berbers are just as most other peoples in the world, blended with other people. There are differences between Berbers which have inspired many stories, of European slaves and war captives, bringing blond hair and red hair as well as green and blue eyes into the Berber race. The origin of Berbers is not certain either, some believe they may have come from Europe, but it is safest to consider the Berbers as the original population of North Africa.

6. Indigenous Peoples Under The Rule Of Islam Network. indigenous peoples Under the Rule of Islam done against the indigenous Assyrians, Jews and berber Christians across the tip of north west africa, all through the Middle http://www.atour.com/religion/docs/20010803a.html

Document loading Religious Organizations Network Indigenous Peoples Under the Rule of Islam by Frederick P. Isaac Posted: Friday, August 3, 2001 at 04:53 PM CT Contents Preface Introduction PART I – THE UNSHEATHED SWORD Tourism and Terrorism, A Risky Venture Instability and Chaos of the so-called Rule of Law Suppression of Freedom The Ruinous Cyclone ... Preaching and Practice Dedication To the children of Assyria. Acknowledgements I wish to thank my son Ashur for encouraging me to write this book. His support in helping me put the book together made it possible to bring this effort to fruition. I also wish to thank my wife Asmar Adam for being a source of inspiration and help, and the encouragement of my two daughters Anne and Mai. I also wish to extend my gratitude to Atour.com for their full support and excellent presentation of the material and professionalism. PREFACE This book has been in the process of writing for over 10 years. Since I left Iraq in the summer of 1964 and my immigration from Kuwait in 1971, I have closely followed the events that have developed in the Islamic world. Being an Assyrian national, I found that life in Iraq was unbearably difficult due to my indigenous nationality. Nor were my experiences unique, but were instead shared by many other Assyrians from Iraq and other Islamic countries. The injustice of my personal experiences in Iraq, the sadness of having to leave my home country, and awareness that this was a common circumstance for many other Assyrians, left my mind pondering over the issue of the

7. FWB, Fall 1994/Winter 1995 To reduce North africa to one cultural model would and economic development of the berber homelands. the Draft Declaration on the Rights of indigenous peoples. http://carbon.cudenver.edu/public/fwc/Issue9/berber-2.html

B ERBERS The Berber Role in the Liberation Struggle At the beginning of the 19th century, political anarchy and economic dependency in the Maghreb made the region vulnerable to the imperial intentions of Europeans, especially the French. The region was under the control of the Ottoman Turks, in 1830, when the French took control of Algiers and then gradually extended military control over the coastal region.8 From the beginning, French imperial policy in North Africa proved to be destructive and violent.9 Militarily, the French controlled the whole region, with the exception of wide pockets in the Atlas Mountain highlands (that were inhabited primarily by Berbers). The colonial French deliberately destroyed the local Maghreb economy while opening the gates to settlement by French civilians. The colonial administration used modern capitalistic interpretations of Roman Law as a means to dispossess the population (including the Berbers) of its territorial domain. By confounding pasture land with uncultivated land, and jointly owned property with collective property, and by extending the limits of forest lands, the French confined their colonized subjects to progressively diminished space and resources.10 The colonial policy was intended to divide and rule. Juridically, the French applied their own laws, while breaking down the Islamic legal structure. The policy of containment of Berbers (confining their territorial space), while suppressing the Islamic judicial system, drove a wedge between the traditional Arab elites and the Berber peasants. In Morocco (where the same French colonial policy as that conducted in Algeria led indirectly to the current national crisis between Arabs and Berbers), the French provided segregated schools for the Berbers, while they tried to rally Berber tribes to the tricolor behind Al-Glawi, a powerful

8. Africa Indigenous People Resources Bangwa africa, african Anthropology General Resources. By peoples. Akan Akuapem Akye Anyi Aowin Asante Babanki Baga Bali Bamana Bamileke Bamum Bangubangu Bangwa Baule Beembe Bembe berber http://www.archaeolink.com/africa_indigenous_people_resourc.htm

Bangwa Home Africa, African Anthropology General Resources By peoples Akan Akuapem Akye Anyi ... Zulu ArtWorld AFRICA -Bangwa "The Bangwa occupy a mountainous and part forested countryside west of the Bamileke in south-eastern Cameroon, near the headwaters of the Cross River. They comprise nine chiefdoms. People live in separate family compounds, sometimes with large meeting houses where visitors may be received." - From University of Durham - http://artworld.uea.ac.uk/teaching_modules/africa/cultural_groups_by_country/bangwa/welcome.html Bangwa People "Authority among the Bangwa was traditionally instituted as part of the Bamileke political complex. Like most of the western Grasslands people, Babanki political authority is vested in a village chief, who is supported by a council of elders, and is called Fon." You will find material related to Bangwa history, culture, arts, political structure and more. - From University of Iowa - http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Bangwa.html

9. THE BERBERS OF NORTH AFRICA presents the various berber tribes of the Maghreb Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Lybia, Mauritania. almost three thousand years the berber peoples of North africa have clung to their distinct when the last indigenous Christians finally disappeared from North africa in the 12th http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/mgcberbr.html

var cm_role = "live" var cm_host = "angelfire.lycos.com" var cm_taxid = "/memberembedded" CHAPTER 6 THE BERBERS OF NORTH AFRICA INTRODUCTION For almost three thousand years the Berber peoples of North Africa have clung to their distinct identity and language, sheltering in the mountains and in desert oases from infringing invaders. Most of the North African population is originally of Berber stock that has been largely Arabised. There remain 20 million people who are still distinctly Berber, speaking their ancient dialects as a first language (although most Berbers are bi-lingual) and clinging to their old culture. There are some real differences between Berbers and Arabs, but they also have many crosscultural links. Arabic is the official language of all Maghreb states and it is also the language of religion and culture. Living in a mountainous environment and in a tribal society divided by many dialects, there has always been much political fragmentation amongst the Berbers. There is little pan-Berber nationalism as they identify primarily with their family and tribe. Fighting used to be endemic to their way of life and they have a intense love of independence. Their origin is shrouded in mystery. Some think they crossed over from the Iberian Peninsula many thousands of years ago, others that they have always lived in North Africa. Many invaders and colonists reached the Maghreb, including Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and French.

10. African Tribes - Berber People Recommended Book. The berbers (The peoples of africa) The berberspeaking peoples are regarded as the indigenous tribes of North africa. http://www.africaguide.com/culture/tribes/berber.htm

... where Africa comes to you ... HOME NEWS LETTER CONTACT US LINK TO US ... African Weddings Berber Location: Berbers have lived in Africa since the earliest recorded time. References date back to 3000 BC. There are many scattered tribes of Berber across Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. Forty percent of the Moroccan population is Berber, 30% live in Algeria, and 1% in Tunisia. There are smaller numbers of Berbers in Mauritania, Mali, and Niger. They tend to live in desert regions like the Sahara and in the Atlas Mountains. They live there because the Arabs conquered North Africa in the 7th century AD, and pushed the Berbers out. The number of Berbers in North Africa has slowly declined because more and more Berbers are adopting the language and culture of the Arabs. Language: Berber is derived from the Roman term for barbarians. Berbers are non-Arabic tribes. Throughout the centuries Berbers have mixed with many ethnic groups, mostly Arabs. Because of this, Berbers have come to be identified by linguistics instead of racial basis. The Berber language has 300 closely related dialects. A number of tribes have their own distinct language. Some of the largest Berber tribes are Rif, Kabyle, Shawia, Tuareg, Haratin, Shluh, and Beraber. The written language is not commonly taught and is rarely used. Daily Life: Berbers are traditionally Muslim, and societies are quite fragmented. Berbers have had a constant struggle for power in North Africa with Arab tribes for centuries. The Barbary Coast of North Africa was named after the word Berber, and was known as a place where Arab and Berber pirates would prey on ships on the Mediterranean Sea. Traditionally, Berbers raised sheep and cattle. However, some Berbers subsist by working in flourmills, doing woodcarving, quarrying millstones, and making pottery or jewelry. Women were generally involved with housework, weaving, and pottery. Berbers generally live in rural areas. Their housing is usually clay huts or tents made out of goat hair. In larger villages, however, houses are made of stone. Today, most Berbers are migrant workers who work in Spain or France.

11. AMAZIGH SITES images of traditional berbers (Amazigh) of north africa. United Nations Working Group on indigenous peoples, in Geneva berber World/Monde de berberIn English http://amazighworld.net/communication/links/amazigh.php

Subscibe to our newsletter e-mail AMAZIGH LINKS http://amazigh.startkabel.nl Startpagina Startkabel.nl - jouw favoriete startpagina biedt je het overzicht van verwijzingen naar de meest waardevolle sites op internet. Startpagina Startkabel.nl heeft reeds gevonden wat je zoekt! Jouw favoriete startpagina van Nederland Tamazgha.fr News on amazigh issue in frensh. www.kabyle.com news on amazigh issue AMAZIGH.NL - Language, history, culture, music and more. In Dutch and Tamazight. ACAA Association in America The Amazigh Cultural Association in America, Inc., is a non-profit organization registered in the state of New Jersey, organized and operated exclusively for cultural, educational, and scientific purposes to contribute to saving, promoting, and enriching the Amazigh language and culture. Adrum Productions: UMALU . Site of the Amazigh artist's first CD, with samples. Also an introduction to the Amazigh people and music. Africa Internacional No. 19

12. MRG - Recent News And Events and indigenous people in africa and acknowledgement of rights of minorities and indigenous peoples and other teaching lessons in the berber language (Tamazight http://www.minorityrights.org/news_detail.asp?ID=161

13. Amazigh History and referred to the indigenous peoples they encountered as speakers adopted berber and berber coined the implying that the inhabitants of North africa. http://www.libyamazigh.org/history.htm

Substance and Origins: Since the dawn of history, Imazighen have been the indigenous inhabitants of North Africa, their territory stretching from Egypt to Mauritania and from the Mediterranean to the boundaries of historic sub-Saharan Black Africa. Various empires and peoples have conquered portions of historic Tamazgha , beginning with the Phoenicians and Greeks and continuing through the Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, French, British, Spanish, and Italians. Imazighen have been subjected to various religious beliefs: their own early pantheistic concepts; the polytheistic dogmas of the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; and monotheistic Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Since the 13th century, most Imazighen have professed the Islamic faith and Islam has sunk most deeply into their psyches. Throughout their history, the Imazighen have always had their heroes or heroines who have defended their ancestral homeland but then succumbed to the superior "civilization" might of their conquerors. In 814 B.C., for example, Amazigh chief Larbas negotiated a deal to marry Princess Dido, daughter of the King of Tyre, in return for a small piece of real estate that eventually became Qart Hadasht (i.e., the New City, or Carthage). King Juba and king Massinissa intrigued with the Romans against the Carthaginians. Royal prince Jugurtha learned Roman fighting techniques and then led a formidable rebellion from 106 to 104 B.C. according to the Roman historian Sallust's account of the Jugurthine War.

14. North Africa: Afropop Region -- Egypt, Mauritania, Algeria, Morocco, Sudan Berbe By the time Arabs came into north africa in the 7th century, the indigenous berber peoples had had their once pastoral lives transformed by desertification http://www.afropop.org/explore/region_info/ID/2/North Africa/

Love African music? Get our free e-Newsletter! Home Radio Explore Archives ... Back to Region Page North Africa Find Music from North Africa in the Afropop Shop Often overlooked in discussions of African music, the countries of northern Africa link the continent to the Mediterranean world, and particularly to the rest of the Arabic-speaking world, which at over 200 million people, makes up one of the largest regions on earth to share a common culture and language. By the time Arabs came into north Africa in the 7th century, the indigenous Berber peoples had had their once pastoral lives transformed by desertification throughout the region. Living in the remote Atlas mountains and in nomadic enclaves, they resisted invaders as best they could, but wound up on the losing end of the region's political struggles. Nevertheless, they remain an important source of today's north African music. (See Berber Music.) The story of north Africa's recording industry begins in Cairo, Egypt, where the Odeon label started up in 1904, producing over 400 titles before World War I. Given Cairo's continuing dominance as a music center, a thumbnail sketch of northern Africa's modern music naturally starts there. In the grand halls of Cairo today, large

15. NATIVE-L (July 1993): Dutch Gov't: Indigenous Peoples on the indigenous peoples living within their territories, despite a genuine wish to deal fairly with them. africa North africa is home to several berber tribes http://nativenet.uthscsa.edu/archive/nl/9307/0074.html

Dutch gov't: indigenous peoples innusuppnl@gn.apc.org Tue, 13 Jul 1993 10:27:00 PDT Articles sorted by: [ date ] [ thread ] [ subject ] [ author ] Next article: ecologist@gn.apc.org: "SSP: SUBMERGENCE " Previous article: Human Rights Coordinator: "Help Hawaiian Sovereignty Tribunal" Note: This is a publication from the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs / Development Cooperation, which you may find of interest. It was put here for your information by the Innu Support Group. Notes appear at the end. I N F O R M A T I O N Voorlichtingsdienst Ontwikkelingssamenwerking, bezuidenhoutseweg 67, postbus 20061, 2500 EB 's Gravenhage, tel. +31-70-3486486 Number: 11(E) Date: 14 may 1993 INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN THE NETHERLANDS FOREIGN POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION On 29 March 1993, the Netherlands Minister for Foreign Affairs, Mr P.H. Kooijmans, and the Netherlands Minister for Development Cooperation, Mr J.P. Pronk, sent a memorandum to the Netherlands Parliament, to inform it about the Netherlands Government policy with respect to the issue of indigenous peoples in the context of foreign policy and development cooperation. In the memorandum, the Ministers also respond to the reports

16. NativeWeb Home by AbdenourAugustin Benyahia, berber Cultural Movement IT is supported by the Sengwer indigenous Development Project Native peoples of the Sahel, in Northern http://www.nativeweb.org/resources.php?name=Africa&type=2&location=313

17. MSN Encarta - Africa the new religion to fit in with indigenous beliefs. state and the rest retained by the berber landholder the Almoravids, they provided the desert peoples with a http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572628_13/Africa.html

MSN Home My MSN Hotmail Shopping ... Money Web Search: logoImg('http://sc.msn.com'); Encarta Subscriber Sign In Help Home ... Upgrade to Encarta Premium Search Encarta Tasks Find in this article Print Preview Send us feedback Related Items African Art and Architecture African Languages more... Magazines Search the Encarta Magazine Center for magazine and news articles about this topic Further Reading Editors' Picks Africa News Search MSNBC for news about Africa Internet Search Search Encarta about Africa Search MSN for Web sites about Africa Also on Encarta Editor's picks: Good books about Iraq Compare top online degrees What's so funny? The history of humor Also on MSN Summer shopping: From grills to home decor D-Day remembered on Discovery Switch to MSN in 3 easy steps Our Partners Capella University: Online degrees LearnitToday: Computer courses CollegeBound Network: ReadySetGo Kaplan Test Prep and Admissions Encyclopedia Article from Encarta Advertisement Page 13 of 18 Africa Multimedia 159 items Dynamic Map View map of Africa Article Outline Introduction Natural Environment People of Africa Economy ... History D Spread of Christianity By ad 100 Alexandria had become the most important intellectual center of the early Christian Church. From Egypt, monastic Christianity spread south to Nubia and Ethiopia, and west to Berber North Africa. In the latter region, the Berbers adapted the new religion to fit in with indigenous beliefs. Subjugated by the Roman Empire by 200, Berber Christians maintained a strong tradition of religious independence from Rome, even after the empire had adopted Christianity as the official Roman religion in the 320s.

18. Encyclopedia: History Of Algeria speaking, but a large minority still speak the indigenous berber language, surviving africa served as a transit region for peoples moving toward http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/History-of-Algeria

Supporter Benefits Signup Login Sources ... Pies Factoid #35 Almost half of Ecuador is protected Interesting Facts Make your own graph: Hold down Control and click on several. Compare All Top 5 Top 10 Top 20 Top 100 Bottom 100 Bottom 20 Bottom 10 Bottom 5 All (desc) in category: Select Category Agriculture Crime Currency Democracy Economy Education Energy Environment Food Geography Government Health Identification Immigration Internet Labor Language Manufacturing Media Military Mortality People Religion Sports Taxation Transportation Welfare with statistic: view: Correlations Printable graph / table Pie chart Scatterplot with ... * Asterisk means graphable. Added May 21 Mortality stats Multi-users ½ price Catholic stats Top Graphs Richest Most Murderous Most Populous Most Militaristic ... More Stats Categories Agriculture Background Crime Currency ... Welfare Updated: May 07, 2004 Encyclopedia : History of Algeria Sponsored links: This article is the top of the History of Algeria series. Prehistory of Central North Africa North Africa during the Classical Period Rise of Islam in Algeria French rule in Algeria ... History of Algeria since 1962 This article is an overview of the History of Algeria . Please refer to the individual sections of the series for more complete commentary. Historical setting In geography, the fertile coastal plain of

19. GeographyIQ - World Atlas - Africa - Mauritania - Historical Highlights Hassaniya, a mainly oral, berberinfluenced Arabic dialect that and black Moors (the enslaved indigenous class). a dominant role for the Sub-Saharan peoples. http://www.geographyiq.com/countries/mr/Mauritania_history_summary.htm

Home World Map Rankings Currency Converter Countries from A to Z A B C D ... Mauritania (Notes) Mauritania - Historical Highlights (Notes) HISTORY French colonization at the beginning of the 20th century brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to interclan warfare. During the colonial period, the population remained nomadic, but sedentary black Africans, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier by the Moors, began to trickle back into southern Mauritania. As the country gained independence in 1960, the capital city Nouakchott was founded at the site of a small colonial village, the Ksar, and 90% of the population was still nomadic. With independence, larger numbers of ethnic Sub-Saharan Africans (Haalpulaar, Soninke, and Wolof) entered Mauritania, moving into the area north of the Senegal River. Educated in French language and customs, many of these recent arrivals became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state. Moors reacted to this change by increasing pressure to Arabicize many aspects of Mauritanian life, such as law and language. A schism developed between those who consider Mauritania to be an Arab country (mainly Moors) and those who seek a dominant role for the Sub-Saharan peoples. The discord between these two conflicting visions of Mauritanian society was evident during intercommunal violence that broke out in April 1989 (the '1989 Events'), but has since subsided. The tension between these two visions remains a feature of the political dialogue. A significant number from both groups, however, seek a more diverse, pluralistic society. A group of current and former Army officers launched a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt on June 8, 2003. The ringleaders remain at large, and their exact motives remain unclear.

20. Middle East Information Center :: Arab Israeli Conflict News, History, And Discu in North africa, Tunisia, being berber is synonymous with being an illiterate peasantdressed in traditional garments. As with other indigenous peoples in the http://middleeastinfo.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=XForum&file=post&action=ed

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